THEORIES OF

MOTIVATION

CHRISTIAN GABRIEL R. CHUA

2-BLM
Content Theories Process Theories

Heirarchy of Needs by Expectancy Theory of

Abraham Maslow Victor Vroom
ERG Theory of Clayton Equity Theory of J. Stacey
Alderfer Adams
Acquired Needs Theory of Goal Setting Theory of
David McClelland Edwin Locke
Two-factor Theory of
Frederick Herzberg
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY
- Created by Abraham Maslow, renowned psychologist.
- Maslow's concept of self-actualisation relates directly to the present
day challenges and opportunities for employers and organisations - to
provide real meaning, purpose and true personal development for their
employees. For life - not just for work.
Maslow saw these issues fifty years ago: the fact that employees have a
basic human need and a right to strive for self-actualisation, just as much
as the corporate directors and owners do.
The growth of self-actualization (Maslow, 1962) refers to the need
for personal growth and discovery that is present throughout a
persons life. For Maslow, a person is always 'becoming' and never
remains static in these terms. In self-actualization a person comes to
find a meaning to life that is important to them.

As each person is unique the motivation for self-actualization leads

people in different directions (Kenrick et al., 2010). For some people
self-actualization can be achieved through creating works of art or
literature, for others through sport, in the classroom, or within a
corporate setting
ERG THEORY
- Clayton P. Alderfer's ERG theory from 1969 condenses Maslow's
five human needs into three categories: Existence, Relatedness and
Growth
1.Existence Needs
Include all material and physiological desires (e.g., food, water, air,
clothing, safety, physical love and affection). Maslow's first two levels.

2.Relatedness Needs
Encompass social and external esteem; relationships with significant
others like family, friends, co-workers and employers . This also means
to be recognized and feel secure as part of a group or family. Maslow's
third and fourth levels.

3.Growth Needs
Internal esteem and self actualization; these impel a person to make
creative or productive effects on himself and the environment (e.g., to
progress toward one's ideal self). Maslow's fourth and fifth levels. This
includes desires to be creative and productive, and to complete
meaningful tasks.
...
On a work level, this means that managers must recognize his
employees' multiple simultaneous needs. In Alderfer's ERG model,
focusing exclusively on one need at a time will not motivate your
people. The frustration-regression principle impacts workplace
motivation. For example, if growth opportunities are not provided to
employees, they may regress to relatedness needs, and socialize more
with co-workers. If you can recognize these conditions early, steps
can be taken to satisfy the frustrated needs until the employee is able
to pursue growth again.
ACQUIRED NEEDS THEORY
- describes three types of motivational needs: Achievement,
Authority and Affiliation.
- Achievement motivation [n-ach]
The n-ach person is 'achievement motivated' and seeks the
achievement and attainment of realistic but challenging goals, and
upwards progress in their job. They have strong need for feedback
and a feeling of accomplishment.
According to David McClelland, people with strong 'achievement
motivation' make very good leaders. There weekness is their
tendency to expect too much of their staff believing that their staff
have the same achievement-focus - but of course most people aren't
like this.
AUTHORITY MOTIVATION

Authority/power motivation [n-pow]

The n-pow person is 'authority motivated'. This motivational driver
produces a need to be influential, effective and to make an impact.
These people have a powerful need to lead and take charge and are
driven towards enhancing their personal status and prestige.
AFFILIATION MOTIVATION
Affiliation motivation [n-affil]

The n-affil person is 'affiliation motivated' and is a team player

motivated by a need to be liked and for friendly relationships and
interactions with others.

David Mcclelland suggested that a a manager's objectivity is

underminded by a strong n-affil 'affiliation-motivation' because of
the desire to be popular affects and interferes with the decision-
making capability of a manager.
TWO-FACTOR THEORY
In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioural scientist proposed a
two-factor theory or the motivator-hygiene theory. According to
Herzberg, there are some job factors that result in satisfaction while
there are other job factors that prevent dissatisfaction. According to
Herzberg, the opposite of Satisfaction is No satisfaction and the
opposite of Dissatisfaction is No Dissatisfaction.
TWO JOB FACTORS
HYGIENE FACTORS
- are those job factors, which are essential for existence of
motivation at workplace. These do not lead to positive satisfaction
for long-term, but if these factors are absent / if these factors are
non-existant at workplace, then they lead to dissatisfaction.
MOTIVATION FACTORS
- According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be regarded as
motivators. The motivational factors yield positive satisfaction.
These factors are inherent to work. These factors motivate the
employees for a superior performance. These factors are called
satisfiers.
These are factors involved in performing the job. Employees find
these factors intrinsically rewarding.
EXPECTANCY THEORY
- Vroom's expectancy theory assumes that behavior results from
conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to
maximize pleasure and to minimize pain. Vroom realized that an
employee's performance is based on individual factors such as
personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. He stated
that effort, performance and motivation are linked in a person's
motivation. He uses the variables Expectancy, Instrumentality and
Valence to account for this.
Expectancy is the belief that increased effort will lead to increased
performance i.e. if I work harder then this will be better. This is
affected by such things as:

Having the right resources available (e.g. raw materials, time)

Having the right skills to do the job
Having the necessary support to get the job done (e.g. supervisor
support, or correct information on the job)
Instrumentality is the belief that if you perform well that a valued
outcome will be received. The degree to which a first level outcome
will lead to the second level outcome. i.e. if I do a good job, there is
something in it for me.
EQUITY THEORY
- John Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioural psychologist, put
forward his Equity Theory on job motivation in 1963. There are
similarities with Charles Handy's extension and interpretation of
previous simpler theories of Maslow, Herzberg and other pioneers of
workplace psychology, in that the theory acknowledges that subtle
and variable factors affect each individual's assessment and
perception of their relationship with their work, and thereby their
employer. However, awareness and cognizance of the wider situation
- and crucially comparison - feature more strongly in Equity Theory
than in many other earlier motivational models.
- These terms help emphasise that what people put into their work
includes many factors besides working hours, and that what people
receive from their work includes many things aside from money.
Adams used the term 'referent' others to describe the reference
points or people with whom we compare our own situation, which is
the pivotal part of the theory.
Adams Equity Theory goes beyond - and is quite different from
merely assessing effort and reward. Equity Theory adds a crucial
additional perspective of comparison with 'referent' others (people
we consider in a similar situation). Equity theory thus helps explain
why pay and conditions alone do not determine motivation.
EXAMPLE
Inputs
Inputs are typically:
effort, loyalty, hard work,
commitment, skill,
ability, adaptability,
flexibility, tolerance,
determination, heart and
soul, enthusiasm, trust in
our boss and superiors,
support of colleagues and
subordinates, personal
sacrifice, etc.
Equity Outputs
People need to feel that Outputs are typically all
there is a fair balance financial rewards - pay,
between inputs and salary, expenses, perks,
outputs. Crucially benefits, pension
fairness is measured by arrangements, bonus and
comparing one's own commission - plus
balance or ratio between intangibles - recognition,
inputs and outputs, with reputation, praise and
the ratio enjoyed or thanks, interest,
endured by relevant responsibility, stimulus,
('referent') others. travel, training,
development, sense of
achievement and
advancement, promotion,
etc.
GOAL-SETTING THEORY
- - In the late 1960s, Locke's pioneering research into goal setting
and motivation gave us our modern understanding of goal setting. In
his 1968 article "Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and
Incentives," he showed that clear goals and appropriate feedback
motivate employees. He went on to highlight that working toward a
goal is also a major source of motivation which, in turn, improves
performance.
Locke's research showed that the more difficult and specific a goal
is, the harder people tend to work to achieve it.
- In one study, Locke reviewed a decade's worth of laboratory and
field studies on the effects of goal setting and performance. He found
that, for 90 percent of the time, specific and challenging (but not too
challenging) goals led to higher performance than easy, or "do your
best," goals.
For example, telling someone to "try hard" or "do your best" is less
effective than saying "try to get more than 80 percent correct," or
"concentrate on beating your best time." Likewise, having a goal
that's too easy is not motivating. Hard goals are more motivating
than easy ones, because it feels more of an accomplishment to
achieve something you've worked hard for.