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(a)
(b)
Figure 27.3 (a) Schematic illustration of the chemical-machining process. Note that no
forces or machine tools are involved in this process. (b) Stages in producing a profiled
cavity by chemical machining; note the undercut.
Chemical blanking and Photochemical
blanking (PCB)
typical applications: PCB, decorative panels, thin sheet metal stampings,
production of complex or small shapes.
Photochemical blanking (PCB) (Photoetching)
Modification of Chemical Milling
PCB Steps are:
1. design of part to be blanked is prepared at a magnification of up to
100X.
2. a photographic -ve is made & reduced to the size of the finished
part.
3. sheet blank is coated with a photosensitive material and is then
dried in an oven.
4. the ve is placed over the coated blank and exposed to UVL, which
hardens the exposed areas.
5. the blank is developed, which dissolves the unexposed areas.
6. the blank is then immersed into a bath of reagent (or sprayed over
it) which etches away the exposed areas.
7. the masking material is removed and the part is washed.
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Photochemical blanking (PCB)
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Photochemical blanking (PCB)
Process capabilities:
typical applications: fine screens, PCB, electric
motor laminations, flat springs, masks for colored TV.
Skilled labor required, but tooling costs are low.
Can be automated
Economical for medium to high production volume.
Very small parts can be produced.
Effective for blanking fragile workpiece and material.
Because etchant attacks material in both vertical and
horizontal directions, undercuts may develop.
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Parts Made by Chemical Blanking
Figure 27.5 Various parts made by chemical blanking. Note the fine detail.
Source: Courtesy of Buckbee-Mears, St. Paul.
27.3 Electrochemical machining
An electrolyte acts as a current carrier, and the high rate of electrolyte
movement in the tool-work piece gap washes metal ions away from the
work piece.
Modifications of this process are used for turning, facing, slotting,
trepanning, and profiling operations in which the electrode becomes the
cutting tool.
Tool: brass, Cu, bronze and stainless steel.
a highly conductive fluid, such as an aqueous solution of sodium nitrate
NaNO3.
A dc power supply in the range of 5-25V maintains current densities (20-
200 A/mm2) of active machined surface. MRR 1.5 - 4 mm3 per A-min
Penetration rate of tool is proportional to current density.
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Parts Made by Electrochemical Machining
Figure 27.7 Typical parts made by electrochemical machining. (a) Turbine blade made of nickel
alloy of 360 HB. Note the shape of the electrode on the right. (b) Thin slots on a 4340-steel roller-
bearing cage. (c) Integral airfoils on a compressor disk.
27.4 Electrochemical grinding
Combines ECM with conventional grinding.
Wheel is metal bonded with diamond or AL2O3 abrasives, and
rotates at a surface speed of 1200-2000m/min.
The abrasive has 2 functions:
1. Insulator between wheel and work piece.
2. Mechanically remove electrolytic products from the working
area.
Majority of metal removal in ECG is by electrolytic action, and
less than 5% is removed by abrasive action of wheel. So wheel
wear is minimum and the work piece remains cool.
ECG process is suitable for applications similar to those for
milling, grinding, and sawing.
Not adaptable to cavity sinking operations.
Successfully applied to carbides and high strength alloys.
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Electrochemical-Grinding Process
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Electrical-Discharge Machining Process
Figure 27.10 (a) Schematic illustration of the electrical-discharge machining process. This is one of the
most widely used machining processes, particularly for die-sinking applications. (b) Examples of cavities
produced by the electrical-discharge machining process, using shaped electrodes. Two round parts (rear)
are the set of dies for extruding the aluminum piece shown in front (see also Fig. 19.9b). (c) A spiral cavity
produced by EDM using a slowly rotating electrode similar to a screw thread. (d) Holes in a fuel-injection
nozzle made by EDM; the material is heat-treated steel. Source: (b) Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd.
27.5 Electrical discharge machining
The gap between tool and workpiece is critical, thus downward feed of
tool is controlled by a servomechanism.
Dielectric fluid: mineral oils, kerosene, distilled and deionized water.
EDM can be used on any material that is an electrical conductor.
As the melting point and the latent heat of melting increase, rate of
material removal decreases.
Volume of material removed per discharge: 10-6 to 10-4 mm3.
Removal rate and surface roughness increase with increasing current
density & decreasing frequency of sparks.
Electrodes: graphite, brass, Cu, Cu-tungsten alloy.
Electrodes as small as 0.1mm in diameter, and depth to hole diameter
ratio of 400.
Tool wear is related to the melting points of the materials involved.
The lower the melting point, the higher the wear rate. Graphite has the
highest wear resistance.
Process capabilities:
Internal cavities can be produced by using a rotating electrode with a
movable tip.
Metal removal rates: 2-400mm3/min.
Because of the molten and re-solidified surface structure, high rates
produce a very rough surface finish with poor surface integrity and low
fatigue properties.
Stepped Cavities Produced by EDM
Process
Figure 27.11 Stepped cavities produced with a square electrode by the EDM
process. The workpiece moves in the two principle horizontal directions (x y), and
its motion is synchronized with the downward movement of the electrode to produce
these cavities. Also shown is a round electrode capable of producing round or
elliptical cavities. Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd.
Wire EDM
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The Wire EDM Process
Figure 27.12 Schematic illustration of the
wire EDM process. As many as 50 hours of
machining can be performed with one reel of
wire, which is then discarded.
Electrical discharge Grinding (EDG)
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27.6 Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
Source of energy is a laser which focuses optical energy on
surface of workpiece.
The highly focused, high density energy melts and evaporates
portions of workpiece in a controlled manner.
No vacuum involved.
Used to machine a variety of metallic and nonmetallic
materials.
The lower the reflectivity and thermal conductivity of workpiece
surface and its specific heat and latent heats of melting and
evaporation, the more efficient the process.
The surface produced by LBM is usually rough and has a heat-
affected zone.
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Laser-Beam
Machining
(LBM)
Process capabilities:
Widely used for drilling and cutting metals, nonmetallic
materials, ceramics, and composite materials.
Holes as small as 0.005mm, with hole depth to diameter
ratios of 50.
Steel plates as thick as 32mm can be cut.
Typical applications: bleeder holes for fuel pump
covers and lubricant holes in transmission hubs.
The inherent flexibility of laser cutting process, with its
fiber-optic beam delivery, simple fixturing, and low setup
times, and the availability of multi-kW machines and 2D
and 3D computer controlled laser cutting systems are
attractive features.
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27.7 Electron beam machining (EBM)
Source of energy in EBM is high velocity electrons, which
strike surface of workpiece and generate heat.
The machines utilize voltages in the range of 50-200KV to
accelerate electrons to speed of 50-80% of the speed of light.
EBM requires vacuum. Consequently, it is used much less
than laser-beam machining.
EBM can be used for very accurate cutting of a wide variety of
metals.
Surface finish is better and kerf width is narrower than that for
other thermal cutting processes.
The interaction of the electron beam with workpiece surface
produces hazardous x-rays.
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Electron-Beam Machining Process
27
Plasma Arc Cutting (PAC)
Air / Air Good cut quality/speed. Good cut Good cut quality/speed
Economical quality/speed Economical
Economical
Oxygen (O2) / Excellent cut Not recommended Not recommended
Air quality/speed. Very little
dross
Nitrogen (N2) Fair cut quality, some Good cut quality Excellent cut quality.
/ CO2 dross. Excellent parts life Excellent parts life Excellent parts life
Nitrogen (N2) Fair cut quality, some Good cut quality Good cut quality
/ Air dross. Excellent parts life Excellent parts life Excellent parts life
Nitrogen (N2) Fair cut quality, some Excellent cut quality. Excellent cut quality.
/ H20 dross. Excellent parts life Excellent parts life Excellent parts life
http://www.omax.com/learn/how-does-waterjet-work 29
Water-
Jet
Cutting
Process
Figure 27.16 (a) Schematic illustration of the water-jet machining process. (b) A
computer-controlled water-jet cutting machine cutting a granite plate. (c) Examples of
various nonmetallic parts produced by the water-jet cutting process. (Enlarged on next
slide). Source: Courtesy of Possis Corporation
Abrasive water jet machining (AWJM)
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27.9 Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
High velocity jet of dry air, N2, CO2 containing abrasive
particles is aimed at the workpiece surface under controlled
conditions.
Typical operations:
cutting small holes, slots in very hard or brittle metallic and
nonmetallic materials.
De-burring or removing small flash from parts
trimming and beveling
removing oxides and other surface films
general cleaning of components with irregular surfaces.
Gas supply pressure: 850kPa
Abrasive jet velocity can be as high as 300m/s.
Abrasive size: 10-50 m.
Some hazard involved because of airborne particulates.
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Abrasive-Jet
Machining
(b)
Figure 27.17 (a) Schematic illustration of the abrasive-jet machining process. (b) Examples of parts
produced through abrasive-jet machining, produced in 50-mm (2-in.) thick 304 stainless steel.
Source: Courtesy of OMAX Corporation.
27.10 Hybrid Machining Systems
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27.10 Hybrid Machining Systems
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27.10 Hybrid Machining Systems
The implementation of these concepts and the development of
machinery and control systems present significant challenges.
Important considerations include factors such as:
A. The workpiece material and its manufacturing characteristics
B. Compatibility of processing parameters, such as speeds, sizes, forces,
energies, and temperature, among the two or more processes to be
integrated
C. Cycle times of each individual operation involved.
D. Possible adverse effects of the presence of various elements such as
abrasives, chemicals, wear particles, chips, and contaminants on the
overall operation.
E. Consequence of a failure in one of the stages in the system, since the
operation involves sequential processes
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27.11 Economics of Advanced Machining
Processes
The economic production run for a particular process depends on
the costs of tooling and equipment, the operating costs, the
material-removal rate required, and the level of operator skill
required, as well as on secondary and finishing operations.
In chemical machining (slow process), an important factor is the
cost of reagents, maskants, and disposal-together with the cost of
cleaning the parts.
In electrical-discharge machining (slow process), the cost of
electrodes and the need to periodically replace them can be
significant.
The rate of material removal and the production rate can vary
significantly in these processes.
The high capital investment for machines (electrical and high-
energy-beam machining has to be justified in terms of the
production runs and the feasibility of manufacturing the same part
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by other means if at all possible.