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INTRODUCTION
External Forces
1. Surface Forces
- caused by direct
contact of other
bodys surface
2. Body Forces
- other body exerts a
force without contact
ELASTIC DEFORMATION
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible!
Non-Linear-
elastic
d
4
PLASTIC DEFORMATION (METALS)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
p lanes
stretch
still
& planes
sheared
shear
d plastic
d elastic + plastic
F
F
Plastic means permanent!
linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic
5
ENGINEERING STRESS
Tensile stress, s: Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft F
Area, A Area, A Fs
Fs
Ft
Fs Ft
Ft lb f N t= F
s= = 2 or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area Stress has units:
before loading
N/m2 or lb /in2
f
6
COMMON STATES OF STRESS
Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s= s s
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy
Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)
M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
t =
Ao
M
2R
Note: t = M/AcR here.
7
EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE
BODY
Internal Resultant Loadings
Objective of free body diagram (FBD) is to determine the
resultant force and moment acting within a body.
In general, there are 4 different types of resultant
loadings:
a) Normal force, N
b) Shear force, V
c) Torsional moment or torque, T
d) Bending moment, M
EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE
BODY
Equations of Equilibrium
Equilibrium of a body requires a balance
of forces and a balance of moments
F = 0 M O =0
M x = 0,My = 0,Mz = 0
Normal Stress
Force per unit area acting normal to A
Fz
s z = lim
A0 A
Shear Stress
= lim acting tangent to A
Force per unit tarea F x
A
zx
A0
Fy
t zy = lim
A0 A
Strain Energy
u= U =
V 2
u=
2 ( )
= 2
2E
12
STRAIN ENERGY
F = A = (x y)
13
SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN
Use thin-tube specimens and subject it to torsional
loading
Record measurements of applied torque and
resulting angle of twist
14
SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN
Material will exhibit linear-elastic behavior till its
proportional limit, pl
Strain-hardening continues till it reaches ultimate
shear stress, u
Material loses shear strength till it fractures, at stress
of f
15
Shear REVIEW
= G G= E
2(1 + )
16
OTHER COMMON STRESS
Simple compression:
STATES (1)
Ao
F Note: compressive
s= structure member
Ao (s < 0 here).
Balanced Rock, Arches
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
17
OTHER COMMON STRESS
STATES (2)
Bi-axial tension: Hydrostatic compression:
sz > 0 s h< 0
18
ENGINEERING STRAIN
Tensile strain: Lateral strain:
d /2
-dL
= d L =
Lo Lo wo
wo
d /2
Shear strain: L
q
x g = x/y = tan q
y 90 - q
Strain is always
90 dimensionless.
19
STRESS-STRAIN TESTING
Typical tensile test Typical tensile
machine specimen
extensometer specimen
gauge
length
20
STRESSSTRAIN BEHAVIOR
Table 1 - Room-Temperature Elastic and Shear Moduli, and Poissons Ratio for
Various Metal Alloys
Hooke's Law:
s=E s F
E
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test
22
STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR
24
EXERCISE 1
= 276 MPa
0 = 305
= = ()
0
0
=
276 (305 )
= 3
= 0.77
(11010 )
Poissons ratio
POISSONS RATIO
When body subjected to axial tensile force, it
elongates and contracts laterally
Similarly, it will contract and its sides expand laterally
when subjected to an axial compressive force
29
POISSONS RATIO
Strains of the bar are:
Early 1800s, S.D. Poisson realized that within elastic range, ration of the two strains is a
constant value, since both are proportional.
30
EXERCISE 3
tensile stress, s
sy = yield strength
sy
Note: for 2 inch sample
= 0.002 = z/z
z = 0.004 in
engineering strain,
p = 0.002
35
TENSILE STRENGTH, TS
Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
TS
F = fracture or
sy
ultimate
engineering
strength
stress
YS = 469 MPa
37
YIELD STRENGTH : COMPARISON
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt
1000
Yield strength, sy (MPa)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
700 W (pure)
Hard to measure,
Steel (1020) hr
Hard to measure
200
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr
100
dry
70 PC
60 Al (6061) a Nylon 6,6
50 PET
40 PVC humid
PP
30 H DPE
20
LDPE
Tin (pure) 38
10
TENSILE STRENGTH : COMPARISON
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
(MPa)
200
Ti (pure)
Ta (pure) Room Temp. values
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber)
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET
40 Concrete PVC GFRE ( fiber)
PP C FRE ( fiber)
30
A FRE( fiber)
H DPE
20 Graphite
LDPE
10
wood ( fiber)
1 39
VARIABILITY IN MATERIAL PROPERTIES
40
EXERCISE 5
The following tensile strengths were measured
for four specimens of the same steel alloy:
a) Compute the average tensile strength
b) Determine the standard deviation
Sample Number Tensile Strength
(MPa)
1 520
2 512
3 515
4 522
a)
4
( ) 520 + 512 + 515 + 522
= = = 517
4 4
=1
b)
1/2
4=1 2
= = 4.6
1
STRESSSTRAIN BEHAVIOR OF DUCTILE
AND BRITTLE MATERIALS
Ductile Materials
Material that can subjected to large strains
before it ruptures is called a ductile
material.
Brittle Materials
Materials that exhibit little or no yielding
before failure are referred to as brittle
materials.
DUCTILITY
L -L
Plastic tensile strain at failure: % EL = f o x 100
L
o
smaller %EL
E ngineering
tensile
stress, s larger %EL Lo
Ao
Af Lf
Ao - Af
Another ductility measure: % RA = x 100
Ao
44
STRAIN ENERGY
Modulus of Toughness
Modulus of toughness, ut, represents
the entire area under the stressstrain
diagram.
It indicates the strain-energy density of the
material just before it fractures.
TOUGHNESS
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
46
ELASTIC STRAIN RECOVERY
47
HARDNESS
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load
Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.
increasing hardness
48
HARDNESS: MEASUREMENT
Rockwell
No major sample damage
Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20-100.
Minor load 10 kg
Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond
HB = Brinell Hardness
TS (psia) = 500 x HB
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
49
HARDNESS: MEASUREMENT
Table 6.5
50
HARDENING
An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.
s
large hardening
sy
1
sy small hardening
0
Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
s
T
= K T
n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
true stress (F/A) true strain: ln(L/Lo)
51
DESIGN OR SAFETY FACTORS
Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
Factor of safety, N
Often N is
sy between
sworking = 1.2 and 4
N
Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does not
occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below.
Use a factor of safety of 5.
d
sy
sworking = 1045 plain
carbon steel:
N sy = 310 MPa
Lo
2
= =
2
110000
=2 =2 6
= 42.5
(77.510 )
SUMMARY
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
55
CHAPTER REVIEW
Tension test is the most important test for
determining material strengths. Results of normal
stress and normal strain can then be plotted.
Many engineering materials behave in a linear-
elastic manner, where stress is proportional to
strain, defined by Hookes law, = E. E is the
modulus of elasticity, and is measured from slope
of a stress-strain diagram
When material stressed beyond yield point,
permanent deformation will occur.
56
CHAPTER REVIEW
Strain hardening causes further yielding of
material with increasing stress
At ultimate stress, localized region on specimen
begin to constrict, and starts necking. Fracture
occurs.
Ductile materials exhibit both plastic and elastic
behavior. Ductility specified by permanent
elongation to failure or by the permanent
reduction in cross-sectional area
Brittle materials exhibit little or no yielding before
failure
57
Yield point for material can be increased by strain
hardening, by applying load great enough to cause
increase in stress causing yielding, then releasing
the load. The larger stress produced becomes the
new yield point for the material
Deformations of material under load causes strain
energy to be stored. Strain energy per unit
volume/strain energy density is equivalent to area
under stress-strain curve.
58
The area up to the yield point of stress-strain
diagram is referred to as the modulus of
resilience
The entire area under the stress-strain diagram is
referred to as the modulus of toughness
Poissons ratio (), a dimensionless property that
measures the lateral strain to the longitudinal
strain [0 0.5]
For shear stress vs. strain diagram: within elastic
region, = G, where G is the shearing modulus,
found from the slope of the line within elastic
region
59
G can also be obtained from the relationship of
G = E/[2(1+ )]
60
L -L
Tensile stress, s: % EL = o f x 100
L
F
= L
o
s=
A Lo
Ao - Af
s=E % RA = x 100
= D Ao
Do
sy
sworking =
N
1
n 2
n 2
S xn S x - x
x= s= i
n -1
n
61