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1
Network Layer Design Issues
Store-and-Forward Packet Switching
Services Provided to the Transport Layer
Implementation of Connectionless Service
Implementation of Connection-Oriented Service
Comparison of Virtual-Circuit and Datagram
Subnets
2
Network Layer Design Issues
Network layer provides point-to-point connectivity
between any two hosts.
The network layer services have the following goals:
The services should be independent of the router technology.
The transport layer should be shielded from the number,
type, and topology of the routers present.
The network addresses made available to the transport layer
should use a uniform numbering plan, even across LANS
and WANS.
The network layer defines the service provided by the
subnet. A subnet (short for "subnetwork") is an
identifiably separate part of an organization's network.
3
Store-and-Forward Packet Switching
fig 5-1
5
Services Provided to Transport Layer
The freedom in writing detailed specifications of the
services to be offered to the transport layer cause
battles between connection-oriented and
connectionless services.
Internet community - connectionless
With 30 year experience with the Internet, the subnet is
inherently unreliable.
The host should accept this fact and do error control and flow
control themselves.
Telephone companies connection-oriented
With more than 100 years experience, QoS is important.
QoS is important and the Internet is starting to
associate with connection-oriented service. 6
Implementation of Services
Connectionless service
No advance setup is needed.
The packets are frequently called datagrams.
The subnet is called a datagram subnet.
The routing algorithm is the algorithm that manages the
tables and makes the routing decision.
Connection-oriented service
A path from the source router to the destination router must
be established before any data packets can be sent.
The connection is called a VC (virtual circuit).
The subnet is called a virtual-circuit subnet.
To distinguish packets from different hosts, replacing
connection identifiers in outgoing packets is called label
switching. 7
Implementation of Connectionless Service
5-4
10
Routing Algorithms
The Optimality Principle
Shortest Path Routing
Flooding
Distance Vector Routing
Link State Routing
Hierarchical Routing
Broadcast Routing
Multicast Routing
Routing for Mobile Hosts
Routing in Ad Hoc Networks 11
Routing Algorithms
The routing algorithm is a part of network layer software to
decide which output line an incoming packet should be
transmitted on.
Session routing is a route remains in force for an entire user
session.
Routing algorithms should be correctness, simplicity,
robustness, stability, fairness, and optimality.
12
Conflict between fairness and optimality.
Routing Algorithms
Non-adaptive algorithms
They do not base their routing decisions on
measurements or estimates of the current traffic and
topology.
This procedure is sometimes called static routing.
Adaptive algorithms
They change their routing decisions to reflect
changes in the topology.
This procedure is sometimes called dynamic
routing.
13
Shortest Path Routing
If the router J is on the optimal path from the router I
to the router K, then the optimal path from J to K also
falls along the same route.
Proof: If there is a better router from J to K, the route from I
to K can be improved.
Construct a sink tree with the destination to be root.
The goal of all routing algorithms is to discover and use the
sink tree for all routers.
Since it is a tree, there is no loops.
A real network is complex. Routers and links may be down
at any time.
14
The Optimality Principle
17
Shortest Path Routing
An example: find the shortest path from A to D
We start out by making node A permanent indicated
by a filled-in circle.
Then we examine each node adjacent to A,
relabeling each one.
Scan all the tentatively labeled nodes in the whole
graph and make the one with the smallest distance
to A permanent.
This node becomes the new working node. Repeat
the steps till the destination becomes permanent.
18
Shortest Path Routing
5-8 top
5-8
bottom
27
Learning about the Neighbors
Learning about the neighbors: When a router is
booted, it first learns its immediate neighbors.
Send a HELLO packet on each point-to-point line.
The router on the other end will send a reply telling
who it is.
Each router has a global unique name.
If two or more routers are connected by a LAN, we
can model the LAN as a node.
28
Learning about the Neighbors
A subnet in which the East and West parts are connected by two lines.
31
Building Link State Packets
Build the link state packet containing: node ID,
sequence number, age, a list of neighbors and the delay
to the neighbor.
Building the state packet is easy. The hard part is to
determine when to build them.
Periodically or event-driven
(a) A subnet. (b) The link state packets for this subnet. 32
Distributing the Link State Packets
The trickiest part is to distribute link state packet.
Basic idea:
Use flooding to distribute the link state packets.
To keep the flood in check, each packet contains a
sequence number that is increased by one for each
new packet.
When the link state packet arrives, the router check if
it is new.
Yes forward it to all outgoing lines except the one it
arrived.
No (duplicated or with low sequence number) discard it.
33
Distributing the Link State Packets
Potential problems:
The sequence number wrap around use the 32-bit
sequence number. It takes 137 years to wrap around.
The router crashes. Its sequence number starts again
from 0, it is rejected.
The sequence number is corrupt (e.g., 65540 is
received instead of 4, then packets from 5 to 65540
will be rejected.)
Use age to solve the problems:
The age decreases by one per second. The packet is
discarded when age = 0.
Problem packets wont last for a long time. 34
Distributing the Link State Packets
Each router uses a table to maintain the link state packets.
Each row is a recently received but not processed packet.
Each entry includes the source address, sequence number, age,
and send/ACK flags.
The packet buffer for router B in the previous slide (Fig. 5-13).
35
Computing Routes
Once a router has accumulated a full set of link state
packets, it knows all nodes and links, thus can construct
the subnet graph.
Run Dijkstra algorithm to find the shortest paths from
the source to all other nodes.
For a network with n routers, each with k neighbors, the
memory required in nk.
Memory and computational time may be a problem for large
subnets.
But it works fine for many practical situations.
The OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) protocol is used in
the Internet.
IS-IS (Intermediate System-Intermediate System) is used in
some the Internet backbone (NSFNET).
36
Hierarchical Routing
With the increase of network/routers, it is infeasible to
have an entry for each router. The hierarchical routing is
required.
Divide the routers into regions.
The router only knows details to route packets to the
destination within the same region.
But may not be optimal (e.g., The best route from 1A to 5C is
via region 2, but since the route via region 3 is better for most
nodes in region 5.
37
Hierarchical Routing
Hierarchical routing.
38
Broadcast Routing
Broadcasting: send a packet to all destinations.
Distributing weather reports, stock, radio programs, etc.
Broadcast routing algorithm
Send a distinct packet to each destination (waste bandwidth)
Flooding (generate too many packets)
Multi-destination routing
The packet includes a list of destinations
The router sends the packet on an outgoing line if it is the
best route for at least one of destinations (according to
routing table).
39
Broadcast Routing
Broadcast routing algorithm
A spanning tree is a subset of the subnet that includes all the
routers but contains no loops.
Copy an incoming broadcast packet onto all the spanning
tree lines except the one it arrived on.
excellent use of bandwidth
But each router is required to know some spanning tree.
Reverse path forwarding: approximate spanning tree
Router check if the packet arrived on the line normally
used for sending packets to the source; if so, the broadcast
packet is likely following the best route, the router
rebroadcast it; if no, discards it.
40
Broadcast Routing
Reverse path forwarding. (a) A subnet. (b) a Sink tree. (c) The
tree built by reverse path forwarding.
41
Multicast Routing
Sending a packet to a group of nodes (a subset of the
nodes in the network) is called multicasting.
Multiple unicast or broadcast are too expensive
Build spanning tree
Upon receiving a packet, prune the spanning tree (cut off the
routers/lines that do not lead to any member in the group)
Not scalable
42
Multicast Routing
44
Routing for Mobile Hosts
53
Route Maintenance
57
Congestion Control Algorithms
Congestion is a problem when too many packets are
present in the subnet, performance degrades
Congestions can be brought on by several factors:
All of a sudden, streams of packets arrive on multiple input
lines and all of them need the same output line, a queue is
built up. Allocating more memory may help to a point but
with infinite memory, congestion gets worse because packets
are timed out.
Slow processors make queue to be built up even though there
are enough bandwidth.
Low-bandwidth also causes congestion.
58
Congestion
60
Congestion Control vs. Flow Control
Open loop solve the problem by essentially good
design.
deciding when to accept new traffic, when to discard packets,
etc., without regard to the current state of the network
Close loop solve the problem based on the feedback.
Monitor the system to detect when and where
congestion occurs.
Pass information to where action can be taken.
Adjust system operation to correct the problem.
61
General Principles of Congestion Control
The presence of congestion means that the load is
greater than the resources can handle
Two solutions
Increase the resource: increase the bandwidth, Split the
traffic over multiple routes, Put spare routers on-line
Decrease the traffic: deny service to new users (hire-
freezing), degrade service to some/all users (reduce salary),
drop some users (lay off)
62
Congestion Prevention Policies
5-26
67
Quality of Service
A stream of packets from a source to a destination is
called a flow.
QoS (Quality of Server) is characterized by four
primary parameters: reliability, delay, jitter, and
bandwidth.
To achieve high reliability:
The checksum is used to verify the packet at the destination.
If a packet is damaged in transit, it is not acknowledge and
will be retransmitted eventually.
68
Requirements
70
Buffering
(a) A leaky bucket with water. (b) a leaky bucket with packets.
72
The Leaky
Bucket
Algorithm
(a) Input to a leaky bucket.
(b) Output from a leaky
bucket. Output from a token
bucket with capacities of (c)
250 KB, (d) 500 KB, (e)
750 KB, (f) Output from a
500KB token bucket feeding
a 10-MB/sec leaky bucket.
73
The Token Bucket Algorithm
5-34
5-34
82
How Networks Differ
Two or more networks are connected to form an
internet.
The reasons why different networks will always
be around:
The installed base of different networks is large.
As computers and networks get cheaper, the place
where (purchasing) decisions get made moved
downward in organization.
Different networks have radically different
technology.
83
Connecting Networks
5-43
A connectionless internet.
89
Concatenated Virtual Circuits
Advantages:
Buffers can be reserved.
Sequencing can be guaranteed.
Shorter headers can be used.
Troubles caused by delayed duplicate packets can be avoid.
Disadvantages:
Table space required in the router for each open connection.
No alternate routing to avoid congested areas.
Vulnerability to router failure along the path.
Difficult to implement if one of the networks is an unreliable
datagram network.
90
Connectionless internetworking
Advantages:
More potential for adapting to congestion
Robustness in the face of router failures
Various adaptive routing algorithms are possible.
It can be used over subnets that do not use virtual
circuits inside.
Disadvantages:
More potential for congestion
Longer header needed
91
Tunneling
Internetworking for the general case is extremely
difficult.
Common case: The source and destination are on the same
type of network but different networks are in between.
Tunneling is the transmission of data in such a way that the
routing nodes in the network are unaware that the
transmission is from a different network.
How it works?
Source sends packets to an intermediate gateway
Intermediate gateways put the whole packet into the
payload field (don't interpret it).
The destination will understand the packet
92
Tunneling
95
Internetwork Routing
H7 R3 H8
H1 H2 H3
Network 4
Network 2 (Ethernet) (point-to-point)
R1
R2
Protocol Stack H4
Network 3 (FDDI)
H5 H6
H1 H8
TCP R1 R2 R3 TCP
IP IP IP IP IP
102
Example
Start of header
Ident= x 0 Offset= 0
Rest of header
H1 R1 R2 R3 H8
1400 data bytes
Start of header
103
The Network Layer in the Internet
The IP Protocol
IP Addresses
Internet Control Protocols
OSPF The Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
BGP The Exterior Gateway Routing Protocol
Internet Multicasting
Mobile IP
IPv6
104
Design Principles for Internet
1. Make sure it works.
2. Keep it simple.
3. Make clear choices.
4. Exploit modularity.
5. Expect heterogeneity.
6. Avoid static options and parameters.
7. Look for a good design; it need not be perfect.
8. Be strict when sending and tolerant when receiving.
9. Think about scalability.
10. Consider performance and cost. 105
The Network Layer in the Internet
The Internet can be viewed as a collection of
subnetworks or Autonomous Systems (AS).
IP (Internet Protocol) hosts the whole Internet together.
Communication in the Internet works as follows:
The transport layer takes data streams and breaks them up
into datagrams. In theory, datagrams can be up to 64 Kbytes
each, but in practice they are usually not more than 1500
bytes so they fit in one Ethernet frame.
Each datagram is transmitted through the Internet.
When all the pieces finally get to the destination machine,
they are reassembled by the network layer, which inserts it
into the receiving process input stream. 106
Collection of Subnetworks
110
IPv4 header format
Header checksum A number that is computed to ensure the
integrity of the header values.
Source address The 32-bit IPv4 address of the sending host.
Destination address The 32-bit IPv4 address of the receiving
host.
Options A list of optional specifications for security
restrictions, route recording, and source routing. Not every
datagram specifies an options field.
Padding Null bytes which are added to make the header length
an integral multiple of 32 bytes as required by the header length
field.
111
The IP Protocol
5-54
IP address formats.
115
IP Addresses
The value 0 means this network or this host. The value
of -1 (all 1s) is used as a broadcast address to mean all
hosts on the indicated network.
0.0.0.0 is used by hosts when booted.
IP addresses with 0 as network number refer to the
current network. 156.26.10.0.
255.255.255.255 broadcast on local network
The addresses with a network number and all 1s in the
host field allow machines to broadcast to remote
LANs.
127.0.0.1, loopback
116
IP Addresses
Special IP addresses.
117
IP Addresses
dig - DNS lookup utility
;; QUESTION SECTION:
;www. IN A
;; AUTHORITY SECTION:
. 10800 IN SOA A.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. NSTLD.VERISIGN-
GRS.COM. 2003110201 1800 900 604800 86400
119
Subnets
Problem: When a company grows, it may need to
change network class.
solution: subnets
The main router needs a subnet mask that indicates the split
between network + subnet number and host.
Using the bitwise AND operation on the IP address and the
subnet mask produces the subnet number.
e.g.: machine 156.26.10.239 (kirk) subnet mask:
255.255.255.128 subnet number: 156.26.10.128.
All hosts on the same subnet share the same subnet mask
Effectively created a three layers structure.
Example: WSU 156.26.xxx.yyy, subnet mask 255.255.255.0,
WSU CS 156.26.10.xxx.
120
Subnets
123
Supernetting (CIDR)
Represent blocks with a single pair:
Restrict block sizes to powers of 2
Use a bit mask (CIDR mask) to identify block size
<base address, count> <192.15.32.0, 1024>
base address/mask
192.15.32.0/255.255.252.0
base address/bits of network part
192.15.32.0/22
All routers must understand CIDR addressing
124
CDR Classless InterDomain Routing
5-59
$ netstat -rn
Kernel IP routing table
Destination Gateway Genmask Flags MSS Window irtt Iface
156.26.10.128 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.128 U 40 0 0 eth0
192.168.1.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.0 U 40 0 0 eth1
0.0.0.0 156.26.10.129 0.0.0.0 UG 40 0 0 eth0
$ ping kirk
PING kirk.cs.twsu.edu (156.26.10.239): 56 data bytes
126
Subnet Example
Subnet mask: 255.255.255.192
Subnet number: 156.26.10.0
156.26.10.239 (kirk)
156.26.10.130
H2
R2
H3
156.26.1.10 Forwarding table at router R1
156.26.1.160
Subnet Number Subnet Mask Next Hop
Subnet mask: 255.255.0.0 156.26.10.0 255.255.255.192 interface 0
Subnet number: 156.26.0.0
156.26.10.128 255.255.255.128 interface 1
156.26.0.0 255.255.0.0 R2
127
Packet Forwarding
Strategy
every datagram contains destinations address
if directly connected to destination network, then forward to
host
if not directly connected to destination network, then forward
to some router
forwarding table maps network number into next hop
each host has a default router
each router maintains a forwarding table
Example Network Number Next Hop
1 R3
2 R1
3 interface 1
4 interface 0
128
NAT Network Address Translation
An ISP usually has a class B address (65534 addresses).
When the number of customers is more than that
Dynamically allocate the IP address to active users, and take it
back after the session is terminated
But business costumers (connected to LAN) and home users
(via DSL or cable modem) want to stay on line continuously.
Long term solution IPv6: it will take years to finish the
transition from v4 to v6.
129
NAT Network Address Translation
Quick fix NAT (Network Address Translation)
The basic idea is to assign an IP address to each company
Within the company, every computer has a unique IP address,
used to route the internal traffic. Some IP addresses are
reserved. The companies can use them freely, as long as they
dont appear on the Internet.
10.0.0.0 10. 255.255.255/8 (16,777,216 hosts)
172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255/12 (1,048,576 hosts)
192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255/16 (65,536 hosts)
When packet exit the company, address translation takes place
130
NAT Network Address Translation
The objections:
NAT violates the architectural model of IP, which states that
every IP address uniquely identifies a single machine
worldwide.
NAT changes the Internet from a connectionless network to a
kind of connection-oriented network.
NAT violates the most fundamental rule of protocol layering.
Processes on the Internet are not required to use TCP or UDP.
Some applications insert IP addresses in the body of the text.
Since the TCP source port field is 16 bits, at most 65,536
machines can be mapped onto an IP address.
131
NAT Network Address Translation
5-61
Operation of DHCP.
139
The Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
Two-level routing:
interior gateway protocol a routing algorithm
within an AS.
exterior gateway protocol a routing algorithm
between Ases.
RIP (Route Information Protocol)
distance-vector algorithm
based on hop-count
Slow convergence
Replaced in May 1979 by a link state protocol
140
OSPF The Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol
Design goals of OSPF (Open Shortest Path First):
1. The algorithm should be published in the open literature.
2. It should support a variety of distance metrics.
3. It had to be a dynamic algorithm
4. It had to support routing based on type of service.
5. It had to do load balancing.
6. It supports for hierarchical systems.
7. Some security was required.
8. It is able to deal with routers connected to the Internet via a
tunnel.
141
OSPF The Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol
OSPF supports three kinds of connections and
networks:
1. Point-to-pint lines between exactly two routers.
2. Multiaccess networks with broadcasting (e.g., most
LANs.)
3. Multiaccess networks without broadcasting (e.g., most
packet-switched WANs).
A multiaccess network is one that can have multiple
routers on it, each of which can directly communicate
with all the others.
OSPF represents the actual network as a graph like
this and then compute the shortest path from every
router to every other router. 142
OSPF The Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol
143
(a) An autonomous system. (b) A graph representation of (a).
OSPF The Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol
OSPF allows ASes to be divided into numbered areas,
where an area is a network or a set of contiguous
networks.
Every AS has a backbone area (area 0). All areas are
connected to the backbone.
OSPF distinguishes four classes of routers:
Internal routers are wholly within one area.
Area border routers connect two or more areas.
Backbone routers are on the backbone
AS boundary routers talk to routers in other ASes.
144
OSPF
5-66
147
BGP The Exterior Gateway Routing Protocol
152
What is IPv6?
IPv6 stands for "Internet Protocol Version 6 and is
also referred to as IPng (IP next generation).
IPv6 is the protocol designed by the IETF (The
Internet Engineering Task Force) to replace the
current version Internet Protocol, IP Version 4 (IPv4).
The core set of IPv6 protocols were made an IETF
Draft Standard on August 10, 1998.
For more information about IPv6, refer to
http://www.ipv6.org/.
153
Why is IPv6? More Addresses!
IP address allocation history:
1981 ~ IPv4 protocol published
1985 ~ 1/16 total space
1990 ~ 1/8 total space
1995 ~ 1/4 total space
2000 ~ 1/2 total space
More addresses are needed despite increasingly
intense conservation efforts
CIDR (classless inter-domain routing)
PPP address sharing
NAT (network address translation)
Theoretical limit of 32-bit space: ~4 billion devices
Practical limit of 32-bit space: ~250 million devices
154
IPv6
IPv6 major goals were:
Support billions of hosts, even with inefficient address space
allocation.
Reduce the size of the routing tables.
Simplify the protocol, to allow routers to process packets
faster.
Provide better security (authentication and privacy) than
current IP.
Pay more attention to type of service, particularly for real-time
data.
Aid multicasting by allowing scopes to be specified.
Make it possible for a host to roam without changing its
address.
Allow the protocol to evolve in the future.
Permit the old and new protocols to coexist for years.
155
IPv6
SIPP (Simple Internet Protocol Plus) was selected
and given the designation IPv6.
The main features of IPv6:
IPv6 has longer addresses than IPv4.
Improved header processing with better support for options
and enhanced routing functionality
Auto-configuration
Better security support
Better support for Quality of Service (QoS)
156
Whats new in IPv6
Bigger Address Space
128 bits: solving the address shortage issue: 232 (4.2 billion) to
2128 (340 undecillion or 3.4 x 1038)
There are enough IPv6 address to assign
1 million networks per human
A separate IPv6 address on every square inch of every
planet in the solar system
Improved Header Processing and Enhanced routing
functionality
Redefinition of IP options in header (7 versus 13 in IPv4)
Format is improved for quicker processing
Some fields are classified such that they may be ignored by
intermediate nodes
Inclusion of flow label
Elimination of checksum (let higher layer to compute their
own checksum)
Enhanced routing functionality such as roaming a host 157
Whats new in IPv6
Auto-configuration
Reduced Administrative Overhead
Much of the administrative load for IPv4 nodes involves
allocating and managing their IPv4 addresses
IPv6 nodes are able to configure their addresses
automatically (Plug and play)
Support renumbering
Experience has shown that Internet nodes dont keep the
same IP address for their life time
A network (e.g., an enterprise intranet) will need renumber
based on topology change (wholesale reconnection to
another ISP)
An IPv6 node discovers the need for configuring a new
IPv6 address for itself.
158
Whats new in IPv6
Better security support
Reduced Administrative Overhead
Much of the administrative load for IPv4 nodes involves
allocating and managing their IPv4 addresses
IPv6 nodes are able to configure their addresses
automatically (Plug and play)
Support renumbering
Experience has shown that Internet nodes dont keep the same
IP address for their life time
A network (e.g., an enterprise intranet) will need renumber
based on topology change (wholesale reconnection to another
ISP)
An IPv6 node discovers the need for configuring a new IPv6
address for itself.
159
Why isn't IPv6 here now?
Why isn't IPv6 here now?
The situation of lack of address spaces are different
in different countries.
Some transition solutions such as NAT (Network
Address Translation) are there.
There are still not so many applications available for
IPv6.
But mobile phones have pushed fast deployment of
IPv6.
160
The Main IPv6 Header
161
The IPv6 fixed header (required).
The Main IPv6 Header
Version. 4 bits. - IPv6 version number.
Traffic Class. 8 bits. - Internet traffic priority delivery
value.
Flow Label. 20 bits. - Used for specifying special
router handling from source to destination(s) for a
sequence of packets.
Payload Length. 16 bits, unsigned. - Specifies the
length of the data in the packet. When set to zero, the
option is a hop-by-hop Jumbo payload.
Next Header. 8 bits. - Specifies the next encapsulated
protocol. The values are compatible with those
specified for the IPv4 protocol field. 162
The Main IPv6 Header
Hop Limit. 8 bits, unsigned. -For each router that
forwards the packet, the hop limit is decremented by 1.
When the hop limit field reaches zero, the packet is
discarded. This replaces the TTL field in the IPv4
header that was originally intended to be used as a time
based hop limit.
Source address. 16 bytes. - The IPv6 address of the
sending node.
Destination address. 16 bytes. -The IPv6 address of
the destination node.
163
How Was IPv6 Address Size Chosen?
Some wanted fixed-length, 64-bit addresses
easily good for 1012 sites, 1015 nodes, at .0001 allocation
efficiency
minimizes growth of per-packet header overhead
efficient for software processing
Some wanted variable-length, up to 160 bits
compatible with OSI NSAP addressing plans
big enough for auto-configuration using IEEE 802 addresses
could start with addresses shorter than 64 bits & grow later
Settled on fixed-length, 128-bit addresses
(340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 in
all!)
164
IPv6 Addresses
Classless addressing/routing (similar to CIDR)
Notation: x:x:x:x:x:x:x:x (x = 16-bit hex number)
Contiguous 0s are compressed: 47CD::A456:0124 =
47CD:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:A456:0124
IPv6 compatible IPv4 address: ::128.42.1.87
Address assignment
provider-based (cant change provider easily)
Geographic
IPv6 has many different kinds of addresses
unicast, anycast, multicast, loopback, IPv4-embedded, care-of,
manually-assigned, DHCP-assigned, self-assigned, solicited-
node, and more.
One simplification: no broadcast addresses in IPv6! uses
165
multicast to achieve same effects
Prefix Use
0000 0000 Reserved
0000 0001 Unassigned
0000 001 Reserved for NSAP Allocation
0000 010 Reserved for IPX Allocation
0000 011 Unassigned
0000 1 Unassigned
0001 Unassigned
001 Unassigned
010 Provider-Based Unicast Address IPV4-like
011 Unassigned
100 Reserved for Geographic-Based Unicast Addresses
101 Unassigned
110 Unassigned
1110 Unassigned
1111 0 Unassigned
1111 10 Unassigned
1111 110 Unassigned
1111 1110 0 Unassigned
1111 1110 10 Link Local Use Addresses no global uniqueness
1111 1110 11 Site Local Use Addresses no global uniqueness 166
1111 1111 Multicast Addresses
IPv6 Multicast and Anycast
IPv6 describes rules for three types of addressing:
unicast (one host to one other host), anycast (one
host to at least one of multiple hosts), and
multicast (one host to multiple hosts).
The introduction of an "anycast" address provides
the possibility of sending a message to the nearest
of several possible gateway hosts with the idea
that any one of them can manage the forwarding
of the packet to others.
Anycast messages can be used to update routing
tables along the line.
167
IP version 6 Future Evolution
The next header field provides for future evolution.
If non-zero, it specifies an extension header type in
the packet.
The extension header types include the services for
router information, route definition, fragment
handling, authentication, encryption information, and
destination information.
Each extension header type has a specific size and
format and is transmitted after the basic header and
before the payload.
168
Extension Headers
5-69