Energy storage

ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES

Electrochemical battery
Flywheel
Compressed air
Superconducting coil
 Battery
Battery stores energy in electrochemical form
Two types
Primary battery: In which chemical action is not
reversible.
eg: Voltaic cell, Daniel cell, dry cell
Secondary battery: which is a rechargeable
battery
eg: Limited to torch batteries, experimental
purpose in Laboratories.
 Types of secondary storage cells
Lead-acid cell (Pb-acid)
Nickle-cadmium(Nicd)
Nickle-metal hydride(NimH)
Lithium-ion (Li-ion)
 Lead-acid
Lead-acid contains two plates immersed in a
dilute Sulphuric acid (H 2 So4 ) of specific gravity 1.28.
Positive plate (anode) is of Lead-peroxide(Pbo2 )
Negative plate (cathode) is Lead (Pb)
Chemical change During Discharge
 During Discharging
Both plates are converted into Lead sulphate
(PbSo4 ).
Water formed which lower specific gravity of
electrolyte falls about 1.18.
The E.M.F of the cell falls. Lead-acid cell should
not discharged about 1.8v
The chemical energy stored in a cell is converted
in electrical energy.
Chemical changes during Recharging
 During Charging
The Positive Plate (Anode) is converted into Pbo2
Negative Plate (Cathode) into Pb.
Specific gravity of H 2 So4 is raised. When cell is
fully charged it is 1.28.
The E.M.F of cell rises. Fully charged cell =2V
Electrical energy supplied is converted into
chemical energy which is stored in cell.
 Characteristics
EMF:
EMF of a fully charged cell is 2V
The magnitude of emf depends on
Specific gravity of electrolyte
Temperature
Length of time since it was last charged
The emf of cell decreases as cell discharges
EMF increases as specific gravity increases.
EMF increases as surrounding temperature
increases.
 Contd.....
Terminal voltage:
The open circuit terminal voltage of a fully charged
cell is 2.2V.
When cell delivers current terminal voltage < emf
When terminal voltage fallen <1.8V, discharge
stopped.
Internal Resistance:
Internal resistance of lead acid cell is 0.01.
Area of plates
Spacing between plates
Specific gravity
 Contd...
Capacity:
Capacity of a cell is quantity of electricity which it
can give out during single discharge until its
terminal voltage falls to 1.8V.
Capacity of cell depends
Rate of discharge
Temperature
Area of plates
Specific gravity
 Contd....
Efficiency:
Ampere-hour efficiency
Watt-hour efficiency
Efficiency depends on
Rate of charge and discharge
Internal resistance
Time interval between end of discharge and
commencement of charge
Temparature
Charge & discharge curve
Indication of fully charged Lead acid cell

1) Voltage
2) Specific gravity
3) Gassing
4) Colour of plates
 Effects of overcharging
It results in loss of water
Shedding of active material due to excessive
gassing
Produces heat, affects life of postive plate and
seperators
Plates can buckle
Life of battery is reduced.
 Applications
Extensively used in automobiles
Railway train lightning system
Lightning purpose in remote areas
In A.C generating plants, lead acid cell is used
to energise the control apparatus
Hospitals, theatre, other places used as
emergency supply.
 Alkaline Batteries
Nickel-iron cell:
Less weight and longer life than lead-acid cell.
EMF of cell is 1.36V
The positive and negative plate are held in a
nickel-plated steel container.
The positive plate are in the form of perforated
nickel-plated steel tubes filled with Ni(OH ) 4 and
flakes of nickel.
The negative plate are in the form of perforated
nickel-plated steel tubes filled with powered iron
oxide and a little mercuric oxide.
Nickel-iron Battery
Charging and discharging
Chemical changes
 Specific gravity of the electrolyte(KOH)
remains unchanged during charging or
discharging.
Nickel-iron cell is not damaged if left in a fully
discharged condition for considerable period
time.
The electrolyte does not undergo any change
in specific gravity during charge or discharge,
the state of charge by the specific gravity of
the electrolyte.
 Electrical Characteristics

Internal resistance of a nickel-iron cell is greater (5 times that of lead-

acid cell the efficiencies are lower.
 Advantages
It is more rugged than lead acid cell
it can discharge at a high rate for long periods.
Withstands high temperatures than lead-acid
cells
 Disadvantages
Coslier than a lead-acid cell
The emf of a nickel-iron cell is about 1.2V . A
supply of 12V needs a battery of 10 nickel-iron
cells in series but only 6 lead-acid cells.
Higher internal resistance, can not provide
large current, unsuitable for automobile
starting
The efficiencies of ampere-hour and watt-
hour are 80% and 65%.
 Applications
Due to high mechanical strength and
lightness, free from acid fumes
Traction purpose
Mine locomotives
submarines
 Nickel cadmium
When the nickel-cadmium cell is in the
charged condition
Active material on +ve plate- Ni(OH )3
Negative plate is Cadmium (Cd)
Electrolyte Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
When the cell is discharged
+ve plate is converted to-Ni(OH ) 2
Negative plate is Cadmium Cd (OH ) 2
 Nickel cadmium

2 Ni(OH )3 cD koh 2 Ni(OH ) 2 Cd (OH ) 2 KOH

The specific gravity of the electrolyte (KOH)

remains unchanged during charging or
discharging.
The emf of nickel cadmium = 1.2V when
charged and falls to 1.1V when discharged.
 Advantages

It is rugged and very long life

It can be charged in short time (say 1 hour)
Internal resistance is very low ,it can deliver
large current at constant terminal voltage
 Applications
Cell have high discharge rate, they are used in
commercial airlines,
military aeroplanes and
helicopters for starting main engine or
auxiliary turbines.
Small size nickel-cadmium cell are used in
cordless electric appliances sucha as electric
shavers, hearing aids, photography
equipment.
Lithium-ion Battery
 During discharge, the ions flow from the anode
to the cathode through the electrolyte and
separator;
charge reverses the direction and the ions flow
from the cathode to the anode.
When the cell charges and discharges, ions
shuttle between cathode (positive electrode) and
anode (negative electrode).
On discharge, the anode undergoes oxidation, or
loss of electrons, and the cathode sees a
reduction, or a gain of electrons.
Charge reverses the movement.
 ULTRA CAPACITORS
Ultra capacitors are very large capacity (in Kilofarads range) capacitors.
A capacitor stores energy in an electrostatic field when charged.
The capacity of a capacitor can be increased by increasing the area of electrodes (plates)
and minimizing the distance between them.

This is achieved in ultra-capacitors by coating a layer of activated porous carbon on

metal foil electrodes.
The foils are separated by a paper separated by a paper separator and dipped in an
electrolyte.
The paper separator prevents electrical connection between the electrodes but allows
movement of ions across it.

EQUIVALENT ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

The battery works as a constant voltage
source with a small internal resistance.
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
which influence the battery design are
Charge/discharge (C/D) voltages
C/D ratio
Round-trip energy efficiency
Charge efficiency
Internal impedance
Temperature rise
Life in number of C/D cycles
Charge/discharge (C/D) voltages
 C/D ratio
C/D ratio depends on charge and discharge rates
 Energy Efficiency
It is ratio of energy output to energy input at
electrical terminals of the battery.
 Internal Resistance
Temperature effect on internal resistance
 Charge efficiency
Ratio of Ah being deposited internally between
plates over Ah delivered to external terminals
during process.

After battery is fully charged , charge efficiency

drops to zero.
 SELF-DISCHARGE AND TRICKLE-
CHARGE
The battery slowly self-discharges even with no
load on its terminals (open circuit).
To maintain full SOC, it is continuously trickle-
charged to counter the self-discharge rate.
the battery charger should have a regulator to cut
back the charge rate to the trickle rate after the
battery is fully charged.
Trickle charging produces a controlled amount of
internal gassing. It causes mixing action of the
battery electrolyte , keeping it ready to deliver the
full charge.
 EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE
The operating temperature influences the battery
performance
The capacity and charge efficiency decrease with
increasing temperature.
The capacity drops at temperatures above or
below a certain range, and drops sharply at
temperatures below freezing.
The self-discharge rate increases with
temperature.
The internal resistance increases with decreasing
temperature
 Ultra capacitor
Ultracapacitors store energy electrostatically,
whereas batteries produce energy via a
chemical reaction.
Also known as supercapacitors or double-
layer capacitors.
Principle:- Energy is stored in ultracapacitor
by polarizing the electrolytic solution. The
charges are separated via electrode
electrolyte interface.
 PRINCIPLE
Store electrical charge in a similar manner to
conventional capacitors, but charges do not
accumulate on conductors. Instead charges
accumulate at interface between the surface of a
conductor and an electrolytic solution.
One layer forms on the charged electrode, and
the other layer is comprised of ions in the
electrolyte. The specific capacitance of such a
double-layer given by
 C is capacitance,
A is surface area,
is the relative dielectric constant of the
medium between the two layers (the
electrolyte), and
is the distance between the two layers (the
distance from the electrode surface to the
centre of the ion layer).
Cell Construction
An ultracapacitor cell basically consists of two
electrodes, a separator, and an electrolyte.

Electrodes are made up of a metallic collector,

which is the high conducting part, and of an active
material, which is the high surface area part.

The two electrodes are separated by a

membrane, the separator, which allows the mobility
of the charged ions but forbids the electronic
conductance. Then the system is impregnated with
an electrolyte.

Working voltage is determined by decomposition

voltage of electrolyte and depends mainly on
environment temperature, current intensity and
required lifetime.
 ELECTRODES
Electrochemical inert materials with the highest specific
surface area are utilized for electrodes in order to form a
double layer with a maximum number of electrolyte ions.

The main difficulties are to find cheap materials, which are

chemically and electrically compatible with the electrolyte.

As high surface active materials, metal oxides, carbon and

graphite are the most interesting.

Capacitors for high energy applications require electrodes

made of high surface area activated carbon with appropriate
surface and geometry. The electrode capacitance increases
linearly with the carbon surface area.
 ELECTROLYTE
The electrolyte may be of the solid, organic or aqueous type.
Organic electrolytes are produced by dissolving quaternary salts in
organic solvents. Their dissociation voltage may be greater than 2.5 V.
electrolytes are typically KOH or H2SO4, presenting a dissociation
voltage of only 1.23 V.
As a consequence of the quadratic dependence of the energy density
of the capacitor on the capacitors voltage use of an organic
electrolyte would be desirable.
However, if power density is important, the increase in the internal
resistance (ESR) due to the lower electrolyte conductivity has to be
considered as well. The electrolyte solution should therefore provide
high conductivity and adequate electrochemical stability to allow the
capacitor being operated at the highest possible voltages
WORKING
The purpose of having separator is to
prevent the charges moving across the
electrodes.

The amount of energy stored is very

large as compared to standard
capacitor because of the enormous
surface area created by the porous
carbon electrodes and the small charge
separation created by the dielectric
separator.

The distance between the plates is in

the order of angstroms.
 Ultracapacitors can be divided into three general
classes:
Electrochemical double-layer capacitors
Pseudocapacitors, and
Hybrid capacitors

each one of these three classes of supercapacitors

and their subclasses, distinguished by electrode
material
 ELECTROCHEMICAL DOUBLE-LAYER
CAPACITORS
Electrochemical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) are
constructed from two carbon-based electrodes, an
electrolyte, and a separator
 EDLCs
EDLCs store charge electrostatically and there is no
transfer of charge between electrode and electrolyte.
EDLCs utilize an electrochemical double-layer of charge
to store energy. As voltage is applied, charge
accumulates on the electrode surfaces.
These achieve very high cycling stabilities.
The subclasses of EDLCs are distinguished primarily by
the form of carbon they use as an electrode material.
Different forms of carbon materials that can be used to
store charge in EDLC electrodes are activated carbons,
carbon aerogels, and carbon nanotubes.
 PSEUDOCAPACITORS
In contrast to EDLCs, which store charge
electrostatically, pseudocapacitors store charge
Faradically through the transfer of charge between
electrode and electrolyte. This is accomplished
through reduction-oxidation reactions.
Faradic processes may allow pseudocapacitors to
achieve greater capacitances and energy densities
than EDLCs. There are two electrode materials that
are used to store charge in pseudocapacitors,
conducting polymers and metal oxides.
 HYBRID CAPACITORS
Utilizing both Faradic and non-Faradic processes
to store charge, hybrid capacitors have achieved
energy and power densities greater than EDLCs
without the sacrifices in cycling stability and
affordability that have limited the success of
pseudocapacitors.
Research has focused on three different types of
hybrid capacitors, distinguished by their
electrode configuration: composite, asymmetric,
and battery-type respectively.
COMPARISON WITH BATTERY &
CONVENTIONAL CAPACITORS
This type of graph presents the
power densities of various energy
storage devices, measured along
the vertical axis, versus their energy
densities, measured along the
horizontal axis.
Ultracapacitors occupy a
regionbetween conventional
capacitors and batteries . Despite
greater capacitances than
conventional capacitors,
ultracapacitors have yet to match
the energy densities of mid to high-
end batteries and fuel cells.
 COMPARISON WITH BATTERIES
Very high rates of charge and discharge

Ultracapacitor charges within seconds whereas batteries takes hours.

Little degradation over hundreds of thousands of cycles

Batteries degrade within a few thousand charge-discharge cycles.

Ultracapacitors can have more than 300,000 charging cycles, which is far
more than a battery can handle.

Can effectively fulfil the requirement of high current pulses that can kill a
battery if used instead

Batteries fail where high charging discharging takes place whereas

ultracapacitor fares extremely well.

Ultracapacitors are much more effective at rapid, regenerative energy

storage than batteries.