4.

7 DESIGN FOR SPECIFIED C/N:

COMBINING C/N AND C/l
VALUES IN SATELLITE
LINKS
The BER or S/N ratio in the baseband channel
of an earth station receiver is determined by the
ratio of the carrier power to the noise power in
the IF amplifier at the input to the
demodulator. The noise present in the IF
amplifier comes from many sources.

1
When more than one C/N ratio is present in the
link, we can add the individual C/N ratios
reciprocally to obtain an overall C/N ratio,
which we will denote here as (C/N) o. The
overall (C/N)o ratio is what would be measured
in the earth station at the output of the IF
amplifier
(C/N) o = 1 / [1/(C/N)1 + 1 / (C/N)2
+ 1 / (C/N)3 + ] (4.42)

2
This is sometimes referred to as the reciprocal C/N
formula. The C/N values must be linear ratios, NOT
decibel values. Since the noise power in the
individual C/N ratios is referenced to the earner
power at that point, all the C values in Eq. (4.42) are
the same. Expanding the formula by cross
multiplying gives the overall (C/N) o as a power ratio,
not in decibels
(C/N) o = 1/(N1/C + N2/C + N3/C + )
= C/(N1 + N2 + N3 + ) (4.43)
3
In decibel units:
(C/N) o = C dBW 10 log10 (N1 + N2 + N3)
+ W) dB

(4.44)
Note that (C/N)dn cannot be measured at the
receiving earth station. The satellite always
transmits noise as well as signal, so a C/N ratio
measurement at the receiver will always yield
(C/N) o, the combination of transponder and
earth station C/N ratios. 4
 To calculate the performance of a
satellite link we must therefore determine
the uplink (C/N)up ratio in the
transponder and the downlink (C/N)dn in
the earth station receiver. We must also
consider whether there is any
interference present, either in the satellite
receiver or the earth station receiver.

5
One case of importance is where the transponder is
operated in a FDMA mode and intermodulation
products (IM) are generated by the transponder's
nonlinear input-output characteristic. If the IM
power level in the transponder is known, a C/I
value can be found and included in the calculation
of (C/N)o ratio. Interference from adjacent satellites
is likely whenever small receiving antennas are
used as with VSATs (very small aperture terminals)
and DBS-TV receivers.

6
 Since C/N values are usually calculated
from power and noise budgets, their
values are typically in decibels. There
are some useful rules of thumb for
estimating (C/N) o from two C/N values:

7
 If the C/N values are equal, as in the example
above, (C/N) o is 3 dB lower than either value.
If one C/N value is 10 dB smaller than the other
value, (C/N) o is 0.4 dB lower than the smaller of
the C/N values.
If one C/N value is 20 dB or more greater than
the other C/N value, the overall (C/N) o is equal
to the smaller of the two C/N values within the
accuracy of decibel calculations (0.1 dB).

8
 EXAMPLE 4.7.1
Thermal noise in an earth station receiver results
in a (C/N) dn ratio of 20.0 dB. A signal is
received from a bent pipe transponder with a
carrier to noise ratio (C/N) up = 20.0 dB. What is
the value of overall (C/N) o at the earth station?
If the transponder introduces intermodulation
products with (C/I) ratio = 24 dB, what is the
overall (C/N) o ratio at the receiving earth station?
9
Using Eq. (4.42) and noting that (C/N) = 20.0
dB corresponds to a (C/N) ratio of 100

The intermodulation (C/I) value of 24.0 dB

ccoorrrreessppoonnddssto a rraattiiooof 225500..
The oovveerraallll((CC//NN))0value is then

10
Overall (C/N)o with Uplink and
Downlink Attenuation

The effect of a change in the uplink C/N

ratio has a different impact on overall
(C/N)o depending on the operating mode
and gain of the transponder.

11
There are three different transponder types
or operating modes:
Linear transponder :
dBW
Pout = Pin + Gxp
Nonlinear transponder :
Pout = Pin + Gxp - G

dBW dBW
Regenerative transponder : 12

Pout = constant
where Pin is the power delivered by the satellite's
receiving antenna to the input of the transponder, Pout
is the power delivered by the transponder HPA to the
input of the satellite's transmitting antenna, Gxp is the
gain of the transponder, and all parameters are in
decibel units.
The parameter G is dependent on Pin and accounts
for the loss of gain caused by the nonlinear saturation
characteristics of a transponder which is driven hard to
obtain close to its maximum power outputthe gain
is effectively falling as the input power level
increases.
13
Uplink Attenuation and (C/N) up
The transponder receiver noise temperature does not
change significantly when rain is present in the uplink
path to the satellite. The satellite receiving antenna
beam is always sufficiently wide that it "sees" a large
area of the (warm) earth's surface and local noise
temperature variations are insignificant. The noise
temperature of the earth seen by a GEO satellite varies
from a maximum of 270 K for a satellite antenna beam
over Africa and northern Europe, to a minimum of 250
K over the Pacific Ocean.
14
The corresponding system noise temperature
for the transponders on a GEO satellite is in the
range 400 to 500 K. There is effectively no
increase in uplink noise power when heavy rain
is present in the link between an earth station
and a satellite because the satellite antenna
beam sees the tops of cumulonimbus clouds
above the rain, which are always colder than
270 K, instead of the earth's surface.

15
Rain attenuation on the uplink path to the satellite
reduces the power at the satellite receiver input,
and thus reduces (C/N)up in direct proportion to the
attenuation on the slant path. If the transponder is
operating in a linear mode, the output power will
be reduced by the same amount, which will cause
(C/N) dn to fall by an amount equal to the
attenuation on the uplink. When both (C/N)up and
(C/N) dn are reduced by A up dB, the value of (C/N)o
is reduced by exactly the same amount, A up dB.

16
Hence for the case of a linear transponder and rain
attenuation in the uplink of A up dB

(C/N) o uplink rain = (C/N)o clear air A up dB

Linear transponder(4.45)
If the transponder is nonlinear, the
reduction in input power caused by uplink attenuation
of Aup dB results in a smaller reduction in output
power, by an amount G.

(C/N)o uplink rain = (C/N) o clear air

Aup + G dB 17

Nonlinear
If the transponder is digital and regenerative, or
incorporates an Automatic Gain Control (AGC) system
to maintain a constant output power level

(C/N) o uplink rain = (C/N)o clear air dB Regenerative

transponder or AGC (4.47)
The above equation will hold only if the received
signal is above threshold and the BER of the recovered
digital signal in the transponder is small. If the signal
falls below threshold, the uplink will contribute
significantly to the BER of the digital signal at the
receiving earth station. 18
Downlink Attenuation and (C/N) dn
The earth station receiver noise temperature can
change very significantly when rain is present in
the downlink path from the satellite. The sky noise
temperature can increase to close to the physical
temperature of the individual raindrops,
particularly in very heavy rain. A reasonable
temperature to assume for temperate latitudes in a
variety of rainfall rates is 270 K, although values
above 290 K have been observed in the tropics.
19
An increase in sky noise temperature to 270 K
will increase the receiving antenna temperature
markedly above its clear air value. The result
is that the received power level, C, is reduced
and the noise power, N, in the receiver
increases.
The result for downlink C/N is given by Eq. (4.48)

(C/N) dn rain = (C/N)dn clear air Arain

Nrain dB (4.48)

20
The overall C/N is then given by
(C/N) o = 1 / [1 /(C/N) dn rain
+ 1/(C/N)up] dB (4.49)
As noted earlier, unless we are making a
loop-back test, we will assume that the value
of (C/N) up is for clear air, and remains
constant regardless of the attenuation on the
downlink.

21
System Design for Specific Performance
A typical two-way satellite communication link consists
of four separate paths: an outbound uplink path from
one terminal to the satellite and an outbound downlink
to the second terminal ; and an inbound uplink from the
second terminal to the satellite and an inbound
downlink to the first terminal. The links in the two
directions are independent and can be designed
separately, unless they share a single transponder using
FDMA. A broadcast link, like the DBS-TV system
described earlier in this chapter, is a one-way system,
with just one uplink and one downlink.
22
Satellite Communication Link
Design Procedure
The design procedure for a one-way satellite
communication link can be summarized by the
following 10 steps. The return link design follows
the same procedure.
1. Determine the frequency band in which the
system must operate. Comparative designs may be
required to help make the selection.

23
2.Determine the communications parameters of
the satellite. Estimate any values that are not
known.
3.Determine the parameters of the transmitting and
receiving earth stations.
4.Start at the transmitting earth station. Establish
an uplink budget and a transponder noise power
budget to find (C/N)up in the transponder.
5.Find the output power of the transponder based
on transponder gain or output backoff.
24
6.Establish a downlink power and noise budget for
the receiving earth station.Calculate (C/N)dn and
(C/N)o for a station at the edge of the coverage zone
(worst case).
7.Calculate S/N or BER in the baseband channel.
Find the link margins.
8.Evaluate the result and compare with the
specification requirements. Change parameters of
the system as required to obtain acceptable (C/N)o
or S/N or BER values. This may require several trial
designs. 25
9.Determine the propagation conditions
under which the link must operate.
Calculate outage times for the uplinks and
downlinks.
10.Redesign the system by changing some
parameters if the link margins are
inadequate. Check that all parameters are
reasonable, and that the design can be
implemented within the expected budget.
26
 4.8 SYSTEM DESIGN
EXAMPLES
The following sample system designs
demonstrate how the ideas developed in
this chapter can be applied to the design
of satellite communication systems.

27
TABLE 4.6 System and Satellite Specification
Ku-band satellite parameters
Geostationary at 73W longitude, 28 Ku-band
transponders
Total RF output power 2.24
kW
Antenna gain, on axis (transmit and receive)
31 dB
Receive system noise temperature 500
K
28
 Transponder saturated output power:
Ku band 80 W
Transponder
bandwidth: Ku band 54 MHz
Signal
Compressed digital video signals with
transmitted symbol rate of 43.2 Msps
Minimum permitted overall (C/N)o in
receiver
9.5 dB
29
Transmitting Ku-band earth station
Antenna diameter 5m
Aperture efficiency 68%
Uplink frequency 14.15
GHz
Required C/N in Ku-band transponder 30 dB
Transponder HPA output backoff 1 dB
Miscellaneous uplink losses 0.3 dB
Location:
-2 dB contour of satellite receiving
antenna 30
Receiving Ku-band earth station
Downlink frequency 11.45 GHz
Receiver IF noise bandwidth 43.2 MHz
Antenna noise temperature 30 K
LNA noise temperature 110 K
Required overall (C/N)o in clear air 17 dB
Miscellaneous downlink losses 0.2 dB
Location: -3 dB contour of satellite
transmitting antenna
31
Rain attenuation and propagation factors
Ku-band clear air attenuation
Uplink 14.15 GHz 0.7 dB
Downlink 11.45 GHz 0.5 dB
Rain attenuation
Uplink 0.01% of year 6.0 dB
Downlink 0.01% of year 5.0 dB

32
 System Design Example 4.8.1
This example examines the design of a satellite
communication link using a Ku-band geostationary
satellite with bent pipe transponders to distribute
digital TV signals from an earth station to many
receiving stations throughout the United States.
The design requires that an overall C/N ratio of 9.5
dB be met in the TV receiver to ensure that the
video signal on the TV screen is held to an
acceptable level.
33
The uplink transmitter power and the
receiving antenna gain and diameter are
determined for each system. The available
link margins for each of the systems are
found and the performance of the systems is
analyzed when rain attenuation occurs in the
satellite-earth paths. The advantages and
disadvantages of implementing uplink power
control are considered.
34
In this example, the satellite is located at
73W. However, for international
registration of this satellite location, the
location would be denoted as 287E. The
link budgets developed in the examples
below use decibel notation throughout. The
satellite and earth stations are specified in
Table 4.6, and Figure 4.11 shows an
illustration of the satellite television
distribution system.
35
Ku-Band Uplink Design
We must find the uplink transmitter power
required to achieve (C/N) up = 30 dB in
clear air atmospheric conditions. We will
first find the noise power in the transponder
for 43.2 MHz bandwidth, and then add 30
dB to find the transponder input power
level.

36
Uplink Noise Power Budget
k = Boltzmann's constant -228.6 dBW/K/Hz
Ts= 500 K 27.0 dBK
B = 43.2 MHz 76.4 dBHz
N = transponder noise -125.2 dBW
power
The received power level at the transponder input
must be 30 dB greater than the noise power.
Pr = power at transponder input = -95.2 dBW

37
Figure 4.11
Satellite television distribution system.

38
The uplink antenna has a diameter of 5 m
and an aperture efficiency of 68%. At 14.15
GHz the wavelength is 2.120 cm = 0.0212 m.
The antenna gain is
Gt = 10 log [0.68 (D/)2] = 55.7 dB
The free space path loss is
Lp = 10 log [(4R/) 2] = 207.2 dB

39
Uplink Power Budget
Pt = Earth station transmitter power Pt dBW
Gt = Earth station antenna gain 55.7 dB
Gr = Satellite antenna gain 31.0 dB
Lp = Free space path loss -207.2 dB
Lant = E/S on 2 dB contour -2.0 dB
Lm = Other losses -1.0dB
Pr = Received power at transponder
Pt - 123.5 dB
40
The required power at the transponder input
to meet the (C/N)up = 30 dB objective is -95.2
dBW. Hence
Pt 123.5 dB = -95.2 dBW
Pt = 28.3 dBW or 675 W
This is a relatively high transmit power so we
would probably want to increase the
transmitting antenna diameter to increase its
gain, allowing a reduction in transmit power.

41
Ku-Band Downlink Design
The first step is to calculate the downlink
(C/N)dn that will provide (C/N)o = 17 dB
when(C/N)up = 30 dB. From Eq. (4.43)
1 / (C/N) dn = l / (C/N)o l/(C/N)up
(not in dB)
Thus
l / (C/N)dn = 1/50 1/1000 =
0.019 (C/N)dn = 52.6 17.2 dB
42
We must find the required receiver input power
to give (C/N)dn = 17.2 dB and then find the
receiving antenna gain, Gr.
Downlink Noise Power Budget
k =Boltzmann's constant -228.6 dBW/K/Hz
Ts = 30 + 110 K = 140 21.5 dBK
K Bn = 43.2 MHz 76.4 dBHz
N = transponder noise -130.7dBW
power

43
The power level at the earth station
receiver input must be 17.2 dB greater
than the noise power in clear air.

Pr = power at earth station receiver input

= -130.7dBW + 17.2 dB = -113.5dBW

44
We need to calculate the path loss at 11.45 GHz.
At 14.15 GHz path loss was 207.2 dB. At 11.45
GHz path loss is
Lp = 207.2 201og10 (14.15 / 11.45)
= 205.4 dB
The transponder is operated with 1 dB output
backoff, so the output power is 1 dB below 80
W (80 W 19.0 dBW)
Pt = 19 dBW 1 dB
= 18 dBW 46
Downlink Power Budget
Pt = Satellite transponder output power 18.0 dBW
Gt = Satellite antenna gain 31.0 dB
Gr = Earth station antenna gain Gr dB
Lp = Free space path loss -205.4 dB
La = E/S on -3 dB contour of satellite antenna
-3.0 dB
Lm = Other losses -0.8 dB
Pr = Received power at earth station Gr 160.2
dB 46
The rreeqquuiirreeddppoowweerriinnttoothe
eeaarrtthhssttaattiioonnreceiver to meet the
(C/N)dn = 17.2 dB objective is Pr = -113.5
dBW. Hence the receiving antenna must
have a gain Gr. Where
Gr 160.2 dB = - 113.5
dBW Gr = 46.7 dB or 46,774
as a ratio

47
The earth station antenna diameter, D, is
calculated from the formula for antenna gain,
G, with a circular aperture
Gr = 0.65 (D / )2 = 46,774

At 11.45 GHz, the wavelength is 2.62 cm =

0.0262 m. Evaluating the above equation
to find D gives the required receiving
antenna diameter as D = 2.14m.
48
Rain Effects at Ku Band
Uplink Under conditions of heavy rain,
the Ku-band path to the satellite station
suffers an attenuation of 6 dB for 0.01%
of the year. We must find the uplink
attenuation margin and decide whether
uplink power control would improve
system performance at Ku band.

49
The uplink C/N was 30 dB in clear air. With 6 dB
uplink path attenuation, the C/N in the transponder
falls to 24 dB, and assuming a linear transponder
characteristic and no uplink power control, the
transponder output power falls to 18 6 = 12 dBW.
The downlink C/N falls by 6 dB from 17.2 dB to 11.2
dB, and the overall (C/N)o falls by 6 dB to 11 dB. With
the minimum overall C/N set at 9.5 dB, the additional
margin for uplink attenuation is 1.5 dB.

50
Hence the link margin available on the uplink is 7.5 dB
without uplink power control. This is an adequate
uplink rain attenuation margin for many parts of the
United States, and would typically lead to rain outages
of less than 1 h total time per year.

51
Downlink Attenuation and Sky Noise Increase
The 11.45-GHz path between the satellite and
the receive station suffers rain attenuation
exceeding 5 dB for 0.01% of the year. Assuming
100% coupling of sky noise into antenna noise,
and 0.5-dB clear air gaseous attenuation,
calculate the overall C/N under these conditions.
Assume that the uplink station is operating in
clear air. We must calculate the available
downlink fade margin.
52
We need to find the sky noise temperature that
results from a total excess path attenuation of
5.5 dB (clear air attenuation plus rain
attenuation); this is the new antenna
temperature in rain, because we assumed 100%
coupling between sky noise temperature and
antenna temperature. We must evaluate the
change in received power and increase in
system noise temperature in order to calculate
the change in C/N ratio for the downlink.
53
In clear air, the atmospheric attenuation on the
downlink is 0.5 dB. The corresponding sky noise
temperature is 270(1 10 -0.05) = 29 K, which leads
to the antenna temperature of 30 K given in the Ku-
band system specification. When the rain causes 5-
dB attenuation, the total path attenuation from the
atmosphere and the rain is 5.5 dB. The corresponding
sky noise temperature is given by
T sky rain = T0 (1 G) where
G = 10-A/10 = 0.282
T sky rain = 270(1 0.282) = 194
K 54
Thus the antenna temperature has increased
from 30 K in clear air to 194 K in rain. The
system noise temperature in rain, T s rain, is
increased from the clear air value of 140 K
(30 K sky noise temperature plus 110 K LNA
temperature)

T s rain = 194 + 110

= 304 K or 24.8 dBK
55
The increase in noise power is
N = 10 log (304/140) = 3.4 dB

The signal is attenuated by 5 dB in the rain, so

the total reduction in downlink C/N ratio is
8.4 dB, which yields a new value
(C/N) dn rain = 17.2 8.4 = 8.8 dB

56
The overall C/N is then found by combining the clear
air uplink (C/N)up of 30 dB with the rain faded
downlink (C/N)dn rain of 8.8 dB, giving
(C/N)o rain = 8.8 dB
The overall (C/N)0 is below the minimum acceptable
value of 9.5 dB. The downlink link
margin is
Downlink fade margin
= (C/N)dn (C/N)min = 17.2 - 9.5
= 7.7 dB
57
Since downlink rain attenuation of 5 dB causes the
overall (C/N)0 to go below the minimum permitted
value of 9.5 dB, we should recalculate the
maximum attenuation that the downlink can sustain.
This involves an iterative process, since changing
the attenuation changes both C and N values in
(C/N)dn. At an attenuation level of 5 dB, the increase
in noise power is 3.4 dB, so a starting guess would
be that decreasing the attenuation by 0.3 dB will
decrease the noise power by 0.2 dB. The rain
attenuation will then be a little less than 5 dB.
58
Recalculating (C/N)dn for a rain attenuation value
of 4.7 dB gives

T sky rain = T0 (1 G) where G = 10-A/10 =

0.339
T sky rain = 270 (1 0.339) = 178 K
N = 10 log (288/140) = 3.1 dB
(C/N) dn rian = 17.2 4.7 3.1 = 9.4
dB (C/N) o rain = 9.36 9.4 dB
59
The result is close enough to the required
value of (C/N) o min = 9.5 dB to conclude
that we can tolerate about 4.7 dB of rain
attenuation on the downlink.
If better availability is requiredless
outage timethe diameter of the receiving
antenna can be increased.

60
For example, if the receiving antenna diameter is
increased to 2.4 m, (about 8 ft) the increase in
antenna gain is 20 log10(2.40/2.14) = 1.0 dB, which
increases the downlink margin to 8.7 dB.
Repeating the iterative calculation outlined above,
the corresponding rain attenuation on the downlink
is 5.5 dB with a noise power increase of 3.2 dB.
The downlink C/N with 5.5-dB rain attenuation is
17.2 8.7 = 9.5 dB, and the overall (C/N)o 9.5
dB.
61