refraction and in Figure 16.

2, it is AL
.

In most ordinary leveling operation,

the line of sight is rarely more than 2
meter above the ground (where the
variation in temperature causes
substantial uncertainties in the
refraction index of air). Fortunately,
 ned error due to curvature and refraction (ecomb ) is thus given by

ecomb = 0.0675 D2 m where D is the distance in km

It is finally subtractive in nature as the combined effect provides increase

in staff reading. In Figure 16.1, x l x a represents the combined error due
to curvature and refraction and in Figure 16.2, it is AL .

In most ordinary leveling operation, the line of sight is rarely more than 2
meter above the ground (where the variation in temperature causes
substantial uncertainties in the refraction index of air). Fortunately, most
lines of sights in leveling are relatively short (< 30 m) and B.S. & F.S. are
balanced. Consequently, curvature and refraction corrections are relatively
small thus insignificant except for precise leveling.
In most ordinary leveling operation,
the line of sight is rarely more than
2 meter above the ground (where
the variation in temperature causes
substantial uncertainties in the
refraction index of air). Fortunately,
most lines of sights in leveling are
relatively short (< 30 m) and B.S. &
F.S. are balanced. Consequently,
curvature and refraction corrections
are relatively small thus
insignificant except for precise