Dr Sushrut Das

3.1 Mismatch Losses in Transmission

Lines:
Attenuation Loss (dB) 8.686l
The total insertion
1
Re flection Loss (dB) 10log10 loss is the summation
1 2
of the losses due to
1
Transmission Loss (dB) 0.868l 10log10 (a) source mismatch,
1 2

(b) attenuation in the

Return Loss (dB) 10log10 1
2
20log 10
line and (c) load
Insertion Loss (dB) 10log10 Pi Pr mismatch.

Pi and Pr are the powers received by the load when it is connected to the
source with and without the transmission line respectively
3.2 Matching with Lumped Elements:
L-Networks:
There are two possible configurations

Let us first consider that the normalized load impedance lies inside
1 jx circle
The input impedance seen looking into the matching network followed by
the load impedance at AB is

1 RL BXRL j XL X BXXL
Zin,AB jX
jB || YL 1 BXL jBRL
Now matching requires that Zin,AB Z0 . Therefore

RL BXRL j XL X BXXL
Z0
1 BXL jBRL

Z0 1 BXL jBRL RL BXRL j XL X BXXL

Equating the real and imaginary parts on the both hand side we get,
B XRL Z0 XL RL Z0 X 1 BXL Z0BRL XL

1 Z0 XL Z
X 0 XL RL Z0 RL2 XL2 Z0RL
B RL BRL B
R 2
L XL2
 Since the normalized load impedance lies inside 1 jx circle on the
Smith Chart therefore RL Z0 and hence the argument of the second
square root is always positive.
The above equation indicates that for B and X two solutions are
possible as both positive and negative values of B and X exists.
However one solution may leads to significantly smaller values for
the reactive components and may be the preferred solution if the
bandwidth of the match is better.
Since RL Z0 , this matching circuit is also known a downward
impedance transformer.

Now let us consider that the normalized load impedance lies outside 1 jx
circle
The input admittance seen looking into the matching network followed by
the load impedance at AB is
1 1
Yin,AB jB jB
ZL jX RL j X XL

Now matching requires that Yin,AB Y0 . Therefore

1
Y0 jB RL j X XL Z0 BZ0 X XL jBZ0RL
RL j X XL

Equating the real and imaginary parts on the both hand side we get,
X XL
BZ0 X XL Z0 RL B
Z0RL

X XL RL Z0 RL
Z0 RL RL
B
Z0
Now since the normalized load impedance lies outside 1 jx circle of
the Smith Chart therefore RL Z0 and hence the argument of the square
root is always positive.
The above equation indicates that for B and X two solutions are
possible as both positive and negative values of B and X exists.
However, again, one solution may leads to significantly smaller values
for the reactive components and may be the preferred solution if the
bandwidth of the match is better.
Since RL Z0 , this matching circuit is also known a upward impedance
transformer.
For a frequency up to about 1 GHz actual lumped element inductors
and capacitors are realizable and can be used.
For a larger frequency lumped element inductors and capacitors are
not realizable because component length becomes comparable with
the wavelength. This limits the use of L-section matching technique at
higher frequencies.
Another disadvantage of L-section matching network is that here we
have only two degrees of freedom i.e., we can choose only X and
B. Hence, once the frequency of matching and RL Z0 have been
specified, the network Q is automatically determined.
If we want a different Q we must use a network that offers the third
degree of freedom.
Pi-Network:

The Pi-matching network decouples Q from the transformation ratio

RL Z0 by introducing an intermediate resistance RI .

This allows the user to obtain much higher Q than an L-section

matching network.
The best way to understand the function of the Pi-network is to
consider it as a cascade connection of two L-network where the first one
is a downward impedance transformer and the second one is an upward
impedance transformer.
The downward impedance transformer transforms the load resistance
RL
to a lower intermediate or image resistance RI .
The image resistance RI is then transformed to the line characteristic
impedance Z 0 by the upward impedance transformer.
T-Matching Network:

Like the Pi-matching network,

T-network also decouples Q
from the transformation ratio
RL Z0 by introducing an

intermediate resistance RI .
The equivalent representation
of the T-network can be thought
as a cascade connection of two
L-network where the first one is
an upward impedance
transformer and the second
one is a downward impedance
transformer.
3.3 Single Stub Matching:
A stub is basically a piece of transmission line that is terminated,
normally, in a short circuit at one end.
It may also be terminated in an open circuit but this practice is not
common. Because the open circuited stub has an inherent tendency to
radiate from its open end.
It is also very difficult to obtain a good open circuit termination than a
good short circuit termination.
Because of the pure reactive / susceptive behavior of the input
impedance / admittance of a stub it can be used to tune out the
reactive / susceptive component of the line impedance / admittance at
any desired point on the line.
If the line impedance at any point z on the line is Rin jXin then
insertion of a series stub with input impedance jXinat z will tune out
the reactive part of the line and thus the modified input impedance will
be .
If the point z is so chosen that at this point Rin Z0 , where Z 0 is the
characteristic impedance of the line then the line will be matched at
z.
 Let us consider the series stub tuning circuit. The input admittance of
the line at ab will be

Yin Y0
YL jY0 tan d GL jBL jY0 tan d
Yin Y0
Y0 jYL tan d Y0 j GL jBL tan d

Y0 GL jY0BL jY02 tan d jGL2 tan d GL Y0 tan2 d jBL2 tan d jBL Y0 tan2 d
Zin
Y0 GL2 BL Y0 tan d
2

Substituting Zin Rin jXin and equating the real and imaginary part of the
above equation we get

Rin

GL 1 tan2 d
GL2 BL Y0 tan d
2

1 GL tan d Y0 BL tan dBL Y0 tan d

2

Xin
GL2 BL Y0 tan d
2
Y0

Now since for matching Rin Z0 1 Y0 we can write

1


GL 1 tan2 d
GL Y0 GL BL2
2
1
Y0 G2 B Y tan d2 d tan1 BL Y0 GL
L L 0 Y0

Using above equation we can determines the position of stub, provided

GL Y0 .

For GL Y0 we can insert the stub at the position of the load.

Once we find the value of tan d , we can easily calculate the value of
Xin from the equation given above.
Now if we use short circuit stub,
tan(blss )
j
Y0S
= jXss where Y0S is characteristic stub admittance and X ss is

Xss - Xin the reactance of the stub and is equal to - Xin .

1 -1
lss = tan - Y0S Xin

b

Substituting the expression of Xin ,obtained before, we get,

1 Y G2
L tan (bd) - {Y 0 - BL tan (bd)}{BL + Y0 tan (bd)}
lss = tan- 1 - 0S
b Y0 GL + {BL + Y0 tan (bd)}
2 2

Once we find the value of tan d , we can easily calculate the value of lss
from the above equation.
 Now if we use open circuit stub
cot (blos )
- j = jXso where X so is the reactance of the stub and is
Y0S
equal to - Xin.
Xso = - Xin

1 -1
los = cot Y0S Xin

b
Substituting the expression of X , obtained before, in the above
in
equation, we get,

1 Y G2
L tan (bd) - (Y0 - BL tan (bd))(BL + Y0 tan (bd))
los = cot- 1 0S
b Y0 GL + {BL + Y0 tan (bd)}
2 2

Once we find the value of tan d, we can easily calculate the value of
los
from the above equation.

If the lengths, calculated from above, becomes negative then l 2 must

be added.
For the shunt stub case, the basic concept is to select the point z on
the line such that the admittance Yin , seen looking into the line from z is
of the form Yin G0 jBin , where G0 is the characteristic admittance of the
line.
If the input susceptance of the shunt stub, inserted at z, is jBin , then
the resultant input admittance of the line is G0 , which is the matched
condition.
The input admittance of the line at ab will be

ZL + jZ0 tan(bd) RL jXL jZ0 tan d

Zin = Z0 Zin Z0
Z0 + jZL tan(bd) ZL RL jXL Z0 j RL jXL tan d

Z0RL jZ02 tan d jZ0 XL jZ0 XL tan2 d jXL2 tan d jRL2 tan d RL Z0 tan2 d
Yin
Z0 RL2 Z0 tan d XL
2

Substituting Yin Gin jBin and equating the real and imaginary part we get

Gin

RL 1 tan2 d
RL2 tan d Z0 XL tan dXL Z0 tan d
Bin
R2 Z tan d
Z0 RL2 Z0 tan d XL
2
L 0 XL
2

1
Since for matching Gin Y0 we get
Z0
Z0 RL 2 XL2
1


RL 1 tan2 d 1
d tan1 XL
RL

Z0 RL

Z0 R2 Z tan d X 2 Z0
L 0 L
 Using above equation we can determine the position of stub, provided
RL Z0 .

For RL Z0 we can insert the stub at the position of the load.

Once we find the value of tan d from the above equation, we can easily
calculate the value Bin .

If we use short circuit stub

- jY0S
= jBss
tan (blss ) where Y0S is the characteristic admittance of the stub and
Bss is the susceptance of the stub and is equal to - Bin .
Bss = - Bin

1 Y
lss = tan- 1 0S

b Bin

Substituting the expression of Bin in the above equation, we get,

2 2

R
L + {Z tan (bd) + X }
1 - 1 Z
0 L


lss = tan 0

b Z0S RL tan(bd)- {Z0 - XL tan (bd)}{XL + Z0 tan (bd)}
2





 where Z is the characteristic impedance of the stub. Once we find the
0S

value of , we can easily calculate the value of from the above

tan d lss
equation .

If we use open circuit stub

jY0S where Bso is the susceptance of the
= jBso
cot (blos )
stub and is equal to - Bin .
Bso = - Bin

1 - 1


Y0S
los = - cot

b
Bin

Substituting the expression of Bin in the above equation we get,

2 2

RL + {Z0 tan (bd)+ XL }

Z
los = - cot- 1 0 2
1

b Z0S RL tan(bd)- {Z0 - XL tan (bd)}{XL + Z0 tan (bd)}

Once we find the value of tan d , we can easily calculate the value of l
os

From the above equation.

If the length, calculated above, becomes negative then l 2 must be
added to give a positive result.

Single stub matching requires a very precise location and electrical

length of the matching stub.
Any deviation from the above will lead to mismatch.
As both the location and electrical length of the stub is a function of
wavelength and hence frequency in the line, the single stub matching is
very narrow band in nature.

3.4 Double Stub Matching:

The single stub matching technique, just described, is able to match
any complex load, but suffers from the disadvantage of precisely
positioning the matching stub.
For satisfactory operation
it must be placed at a point
where the normalized input
impedance / admittance is
equal to one.
Since the stub cannot
always be placed physically
in the ideal location, double
stub matching is used.
Double stub matching
technique uses two short
circuited or open circuited
stubs in parallel with a fixed
length between them
The equivalent admittance, just on the generator side of the first stub, is

Y1 GL j BL Bs1 where YL GL jBL is the load admittance.

The input admittance just on the load side of the second stub is

Y1 jY0 tan d
Y2 Y0
Y0 jY1 tan d

Y1 GL j BL Bs1

GL Y0 BL Bs1 tan d GL BL Bs1 Y0 tan d tan d

Y2 Y0
Y B Bs1 tan d G tan d
2 2 2
0 L L

jY0
BL Bs1 Y0 tan dY0 BL Bs1 tan d GL2 tan d
Y B Bs1 tan d GL2 tan2 d
2
0 L

Since the real part of the above equation must be equal to Y0 , we can write

GL Y0 BL Bs1 tan d GL BL Bs1 Y0 tan d tan d

Y0 Y0
Y B Bs1 tan d GL2 tan2 d
2
0 L
GL Y0
1 tan d 1
2

1
2
4 tan2 d Y0 BL Bs1 tan d
2 tan2 d
Y02 1 tan2 d
2

Since GL is real and positive, the quantity within the square bracket must
be positive. Therefore
4 tan2 d Y0 BL Bs1 tan d
2

0 1
Y02 1 tan2 d
2
For the regions, outside the above
In the lower limit of limit, solution does not exist. Such

0 GL Y0 1 tan2 d tan2 d region in Smith chart is called
whereas in the higher limit forbidden region.
GL Y0
1 tan2 d
2tan2 d

Therefore the range of GL , that can be matched is for a given stub spacing
d is given by 0 GL Y0 1 tan2 d tan2 d 0 GL Y0 sin2 d

Since GL is known, the designer can choose a value of d that satisfies

above limit
Once the distance d has been fixed, the designer can find the input
susceptance of the first stub as,

Y0 GL Y0 1 tan2 d GL2 tan2 d
Bs1 BL
tan d

Since the real part of the input admittance of the line, at the position of
the second stub, is equal to the characteristic admittance of the line,
therefore we must adjust the input susceptance of the second stub in
such a way that it must cancel out the input susceptance of the line at
the position of the stub.
Therefore the input susceptance of the stub must be equal and
opposite to the input susceptance of the line at the position of the stub.

The input susceptance of the line at the position of the second stub can
be calculated as,
Bs2 Y0
BL Bs1 Y0 tan dY0 BL Bs1 tan d GL2 tan d
Y B Bs1 tan d GL2 tan2 d
2
0 L

(Solving Y2 )
From the expression of Bs1 we can write

Y0 BL Bs1 tan d
GL Y0 1 tan2 d GL2 tan2 d

From the above two equations we get

L s1 0 L 0 L
B B Y tan d G Y 1 tan2 d G2 tan2 d G2 tan d
L
Bs2

GL 1 tan2 d
Again from the expression of Bs1 we can write

Y0 GL Y0 1 tan2 d GL2 tan2 d
BL Bs1
tan d

Y0 GL Y0 1 tan2 d GL2 tan2 d GL Y0
From the above two equations we get Bs2
GL tan d

Upper and lower signs in the expressions of Bs1 and B s2 correspond to

the same solution.
Once the value of Bs1 and B s2 are found, the corresponding stub lengths
can be found in the same manner as described in previous section.
3.5 Quarter Wave Transformer:
There will be multiple reflections in the quarter wave line, as shown.
Each of the reflection and transmission coefficients can be expressed as
Z Z 0 2Z0 2
Z0 Z0
1
2Z0 3
ZL Z0
1 0 T1 Z0 Z0
T2 ZL Z0
Z0 Z0 Z0 Z0 Z0 Z0

The total reflection coefficient in the line is the vector sum of these
reflected and transmitted waves on the generator side of the boundary

AB and is given by 1 T1T23 T1T2 2 T1T2
2
3
2
2
3
3 1 T1T23 23
n

n 0

The alternate negative signs

comes from the fact that each
round trip in the quarter wave
line contributes to a total phase
change of 180o.
Since both 2 1 and 3 1 , the infinite series can be written as

TT 12 3 T1T2 3 1
As x for x 1 x 23
n
1 1 2 3 1
1 2 3 1 2 3 n0 1 x

Substituting the expressions of 1 , 2 , 3 ,T1 and T2 we can write

1 12 3 T1T2 3

2 Z0 Z0 ZL
2

Z0 Z0 ZL Z0
If we choose Z0 Z0 ZL then we get 1 123 T1T23 0 0

Therefore the line will be matched.

Like other matching networks, a quarter wave line or quarter wave

transformer is also a narrow band matching network. This is because
as the frequency deviates from the design frequency the corresponding
wavelength also changes and line remains no more 4 .
At a frequency f f0 , where f0 is the design frequency, the input impedance
of the line is given by,
where is the phase constant in the quarter
ZL + jZ0 tan(bd)
Zin = Z0 wave line at f f and d is the length of the line.
Z0 + jZL tan(bd)

Since we are considering a frequency f f0, d is no more quarter

wavelength long. The resultant reflection coefficient will be
Zin Z0

Zin Z0

Substituting the expression of Zin in the above equation we get

2

Z0 ZL Z0 j Z0 Z0 ZL tan d Z0 Z0 ZL

ZL Z0
Z j Z Z Z tan d ZL Z0 j2 Z0 ZL tan d
Z0 ZL
2
0 0 0 L

1
Taking the magnitude we get
4Z0 ZL
1 sec 2 d
ZL Z0
2
Now if f f0 then d 0 4 and d 2 . Therefore the above equation
reduces to
ZL Z0
cos d
2 Z 0 ZL

If we restrict the maximum allowable reflection coefficient to m and it

occurs at d m , then the bandwidth of the matching network will be

2 m
2

Since m at d m , we cam write

1
m
4Z0 ZL
1 sec 2 m
ZL Z0
2

2 Z0 ZL
m cos1 m

1 m2 ZL Z0
 f
Now, d
2f0
fm 2m f0
Therefore m fm
2f0

Hence the fractional bandwidth is

f 2 f0 fm 2f f 4
2 m 2 m
f0 f0 f0 f0
fm 2m f0

Substituting the expression of m in the above equation we get

f 4 2 Z0 ZL
2 cos1 m

f0 1 m2 ZL Z0

The result is valid provided the propagation constant is a linear function

of wavelength and the reactance developed at the junction of the quarter
wave line and the transmission line is negligibly small.
The theory assumes a real load.
In practice a complex load also can be matched using a quarter wave
transmission line because the reactance part of the load admittance can
be easily cancelled out by using a short circuit / open circuit stub at the
position of the load.
Alternatively we can also insert the quarter wave line at a point on the
line where the input impedance is purely real, i.e., at the voltage
maximum or voltage minimum point.
3.6 Theory of Small Reflections:
If be the phase shift at any frequency f then the reflection coefficient can
be written as
1 T1T23 e j2 T1T2232e j4 L T1T2n2n31e L
j2 n 1

1 T1T2 3 e 2j
e
n0
n
2
n
3
j2n

This expression of reflection coefficient is general and is valid for any

frequency of excitation.

1
since for x 1 xn
n0 1 x
and both 2 1 and 3 1 we can write

T1T2 3 e 2 j 2 1 T T e 2 j T 1 1
1 3 e2 j
1
2 2 1
1 2 3

1 2 3 e2 j 1
1 13 e 2 j T1 1 1 1 13 e2 j
Now if we assume that the discontinuities between Z 0 , Z 0 and Z 0 , ZL is
small, then 13 = 1 and we can write
; 1 3 e 2 j

The above equation reveals that if the discontinuities between Z 0 ,

Z 0 and Z 0 , ZL is small then the total reflection in the line is dominated

by the reflection from the discontinuity between Z 0 , Z 0 and the first

reflection from the discontinuity between Z 0 , ZL .

3.7 Multisection Transformer:

A multisection quarter wave transformer consists of a number of
cascaded quarter wave transmission lines with predefined individual
characteristic impedance and have wideband characteristics.
 If we assume that the discontinuities between any two successive
quarter wave section impedance and between ZN and ZL is small then the
total reflection coefficient can be written as

0 1e j2 2 e j4 3 e j6 L n e j2n L N1e N e j2N

j2 N1

If we further assume that the transformer is symmetrical from both the

ends then 0 N , 1 N1 ,2 N2 , 3 N3 , . and we can write

0 1e j2 2 e j4 3 e j6 L n e j2n L 3 e 2 e 1e 0 e j2N
j2 N 3 j2 N 2 j2 N1

e jN 0 e jN e jN 1 e j N 2

e 2 e e 3 e e L
j N 2 j N 4 j N 4 j N 6 j N 6


If N is even then the last term will be N 2 and we can write

2e jN 0 cos N 1 cos N 2 2 cos N 4



3 cos N 6 L n cos N 2n L N 2
1
2
If N is odd then the last term will be N1 2 e j e j and we can write

2e jN 0 cos N 1 cos N 2 2 cos N 4


3 cos N 6 L n cos N 2n L N1 2 cos

The above equation represents a form of finite Fourier cosine series in

. Since a Fourier series, consisting of sufficient number of terms, can
represent an arbitrary continuous function therefore with proper choice
of n and N we can also synthesize a desired reflection coefficient
response of the network.
Binomial Multisection Matching Transformer:

A binomial matching transformer exhibits a reflection coefficient

response that is as flat as possible in the pass band. That is why it is
also called as a maximally flat matching transformer.
Using an N-element multisection matching transformer a maximally
flat reflection coefficient response can be obtained by setting the first
(N-1) derivatives of to zero at the center frequency.

Therefore we can write A 1 e

N
j2

If we assume f=0, then 0 and the multi-section transformer reduces

to the following figure
 ZL Z0
From the figure we can write 0
ZL Z0

ZL Z0 ZL Z0

0 A 1 e0 A 2N
N
Therefore A2N
ZL Z0 ZL Z0

Since shows a binomial response

N
N!
A CNn e j2n where CNn
n 0 N n !n! are the binomial coefficients.

Equating the expressions of we get

A CN0 C1Ne j2 CN2 e j4 CN3 e j6 L CNn e j2n L CNN1e CNNe j2N
j2 N1

0 1e j2 2 e j4 3 e j6 L n e j2n L N1e Ne j2N
j2 N1

Equating the coefficients of the similar exponent terms of both sides

we can write, n ACn
N
Z Z0
n 2N CNn L
N ZL Z0
ZL Z0
A2
ZL Z0
 Zn1 Zn Zn1 Z 1 Zn1 ln x ; 2 x 1 x 1
Now, n 1 n1 1 ; ln
Zn1 Zn Zn n
Z 2 Zn

Equating the expressions of n we get

Z Z
ln n1 2N CNn ln L
Zn Z0

Now if m be the maximum allowable value of reflection coefficient and

lower cutoff frequency occurs at m , then we can write

N 1
cos m
j2m
m A 1 e m A N
2
Since m corresponds to lower cutoff frequency therefore m 2 and
cos m cos m . Hence we can write
1
1

1

cos m
1
m A N 1
m cos m A N

2 2

f 4 1 1

Therefore
f0
4
2 m 2 cos1 m

A N

2
Chebyshev Multisection Matching Transformer:

In contrast to a binomial multi-section matching transformer a

Chebyshev matching transformer shows a comparatively sharp pass
band to stop band transition but at the expense of a pass band ripple.
For a given bandwidth, the number of elements required in a
Chebyshev transformer is also less than the number of elements
required in a binomial transformer.
Therefore if the pass band ripples can be tolerated then a Chebyshev
multisection transformer is much more advantageous than a binomial
multisection matching transformer.
An N-section Chebyshev transformer can be designed by equating the
of the network to an Nth order Chebyshev polynomial. Therefore

TN x 2xTN1 x TN2 x where T1 x x T2 x 2x2 1

For the range 1 x 1 , Tn x 1 and the polynomial oscillate between 1

whereas for x 1 , Tn x 1 and the polynomial increases faster with x
as n increases.
Therefore during designing of a Chebyshev transformer the range
1 x 1 is mapped into the pass band of the matching network
whereas the range x 1 is mapped in the stop band region.

If we assume that x cos then it can be shown that

Tn cos cos n
Tn x cos ncos1 x

Similarly for Tn x , 1 we can write

Tn x cosh ncosh1 x
It is now required to map m to x 1 and m to x 1 . This can be
achieved if we replace cos with cos cos m i.e., if x sec m cos .
Doing so, we get

Tn sec m cos cos ncos1 sec m cos

The pass band reflection coefficient response of an N-section
Chebyshev transformer can be expressed as

Ae jN TN sec m cos
Equating the above equation with the equation of obtained before we
get

Ae jN TN sec m cos 2e jN 0 cos N 1 cos N 2


2 cos N 4 3 cos N 6 L
n cos N 2n L

ATN sec m cos 2 0 cos N 1 cos N 2


2 cos N 4 3 cos N 6 L n cos N 2n L

The value of n can be obtained by rewriting the left hand side of the
above equation in polynomial form and equating the similar terms on the
right hand side. However if the value of Zn and Zn1 is known the value of
n can be obtained using
Zn1 Zn 1 Zn 1
n ; ln
Zn1 Zn 2 Zn

If we assume f=0, then 0 and we can write

0 Ae0 TN sec m cos 0
0 ATN sec m

Equating the above equation with the equation of 0 obtained before we

get
1 ZL Z0
Z Z0

ATN sec m L
ZL Z0
A

TN sec m ZL Z0
Since the maximum value of Tn sec m cos in the pass band is 1
therefore using equation Ae jN TN sec m cos , the maximum
allowable reflection coefficient magnitude in the pass band can be
expressed as m A

Equating both expressions of A we get

ZL Z0 ln ZL Z0

1
m TN sec m

TN sec m ZL Z0 2m

Now for n =N and x sec m equation Tn x coshncosh1 x can be

written as
1

cosh Ncosh 1
sec T sec
m N m
N
sec m cosh cosh1 TN sec m

ln ZL Z0

TN sec m
2m

1 ln ZL Z0


m sec cosh cosh
1 1



N
2m


 f 1
Therefore
4
N
2 sec 1 cosh cosh1 TN sec m
f0
3.8 Tapered Lines:

Depending on the
nature of tapering
such lines can be
classified as triangular
taper, exponential
taper, Chebyshev /
Klopfenstein taper etc.
Let us consider a section a section of the tapered line. The incremental
reflection coefficient at the step, , can be expressed as
Z Z Z Z

Z Z Z 2Z
If we assume x 0 then above equation transforms to
1 dZ 1 Z0 dZ 1 d Z Z0
d
2 Z 2 Z Z0 2 Z Z 0

Now using the substitution f x Z Z0 in the mathematical identity

d f x
f x
d
dx
ln f x dx

we get

d Z Z0 d
ln Z Z0 dx
Z Z0 dx

Using the above relation we can write

1 d
d ln Z Z0 dx
2 dx
Using the theory of small reflections the total reflection coefficient at x =
0 can be found by integrating above equation over the complete taper
length and is given by
L
1 d
ln Z Z0 e j2x dx
2 x 0 dx

If Z is known then above equation can be used to find the variation of

as a function of frequency.

Above derivation neglects the multiple reflections between each

section of the taper.

Exponential Taper:

For an exponential taper Z varies exponentially with x and therefore we

can write Z Z0 e x
At x = L, where L is the length of the taper,
1
Z ZL Z0 eL ln ZL Z0
L
Using the expression of we get
x
ln ZL Z0 x
Z Z0 e L ln Z Z0 ln ZL Z0
L

Substituting the expression of ln Z Z0 in the expression of

,obtained earlier, we get

d x j2x
L
1 1
ln ZL Z 0 e dx ln Z L Z 0 e j
sinc
2 x 0 dx L 2

The above analysis assumes that is independent of x.

A plot of as a function of reveals that when L 2 the reflection

coefficient is quite small the first minor lobe being about 22% of the
maximum.
Triangular Taper:
For a triangular taper the impedance is defined as

Z e2 x L 2 ln ZL Z0 for 0 x L 2
0
Z
4x L 2x2 L2 1 ln ZL Z0
Z0 e for L 2 x L

Z
2
2

2x L ln ZL Z0 for 0 x L 2
ln
0
Z

4x L 2 x 2 L2 1 ln ZL Z0 for L 2 x L

Since d ln z dx is a triangular function, such tapers are called

triangular taper

Substituting the expression of ln Z Z0 in the expression of

,obtained earlier, we get
2 L 2 j2x L
2 ln ZL Z0 xe dx L x e j2x dx
L x 0 L2
 eax 1
Now using the identity xe dx ax
x a and assuming a j2 , above
a
equation can be written as
1 j
e ln ZL Z0 sinc 2 2
2
The above analysis assumes that is independent of x.

A plot of as a function of shows that when L the reflection

coefficient is quite small.

Chebyshev / Klopfenstein Taper:

A Chebyshev / Klopfenstein taper is a kind of taper that we can

obtain if we fix the overall length of a Chebyshev transformer and
simultaneously increase the number of elements in it.
This taper is characterized by its equal amplitude minor lobes and
has the advantage of providing smallest reflection coefficient for a
fixed taper length as compared to others.
Stated another way for a given pass band reflection coefficient it
yields the shortest matching section compared to others.
For a Chebyshev transformer

0L
2
1 1 2x
ln Z ln Z0 ZL ln ZL Z0 1,0L
2 2 cosh 0L L

where 0 is the value of at the cutoff and

, ,


J1 1 2 d
0 1 2
for 1

where
J1 1 2 is the modified Bessels function and
cosh 1
0, 0 ,0 2 1,
2
Others values of , should be calculated numerically.

The expression for reflection coefficient can be given as

1
e jL ln ZL Z0
cos L L 1 e
2
0
2

j
ln ZL Z0
cos 2 02
2 cosh 0L 2 cosh 0
The maximum pass band reflection coefficient occurs at and is given by
1 ln ZL Z0 j0 1 ln ZL Z0
0 e 0
2 cosh 0 2 cosh 0

Using the above relation can be expressed as

0 cos 2 02

Within the range 0 0 , cos 2 02 cosh 02 2 and is a
hyperbolic function of whereas for 0 , is a cosine function of
. Since the cosine function oscillates between 1 therefore the pass
band reflection coefficient oscillates between 0 .

If is specified then the taper length can be calculated as

1 ln ZL Z0 1 ln ZL Z0
cosh 0
1
L cosh1
2 0 o 2 0

Conversely if o and L are given then 0 is fixed

At 0 , the reflection coefficient becomes maximum in the stop band
and it is given by 1
0 ln ZL Z0
2

Therefore 0 0 cosh 0
3.9 Synthesis of Transmission Line
Tapers:
The reflection coefficient at a point x on the taper can be written as
L
1 d
ln Z Z0 e j2x dx
2 x 0 dx

The above equation is the Fourier transform of a function d ln Z Z0 dx

which is zero outside the range 0 x L . Therefore using the inverse

Fourier transform we can write

1 d 1
ln Z Z0 e j2x 2d
2 dx 2

2 L
p x L 2 dx dp
Now let us assume L 2

Substituting the above parameters in the expression of we get

L
1 d j p

ln Z Z0 e e jL dp

2 dp
Again if we substitute

u L d du
L

Substituting the above parameters in the expression of we get

1 d
e j L ln Z Z0 e jpu dp
2
dp
d
Now if we assume g p ln Z Z0
dp

Substituting the above parameters in the expression of we get

A further substitution F u g p e jpu dp in the above equation gives

1
e j L F u
2

pL L 1 d 1
Now using x L 2 and dx dp equation ln Z Z0 e j2x 2d
2 dx 2
2 2
can be written as
pL L
1 2 d 1 j2 L 2 1
ln Z Z0 e e e jL 2d
j p

2 L dp
2
2
2d
2
 d
u L d du g p ln Z Z0
L dp

1 1
g p e jL e jup du
2 2

1 j L
e F u
2

1
g p F u e jup du
2

an e for p
jnp

Now let us define g(p) , as follows g p n

0 for p


Substituting the expression of g(p) in the equation F u g p e jpu dp we get


sin u n
F u 2 an

n u n


sin u n 1 if u = n
Now,
u n 0 if u n

Substituting the above identity we get an F n 2

Substituting the expression of an we get

F u 2

F n sin u n
sin u n
F n
n 2

u n

n u n

The above equation basically represents the Sampling Theorem

in communication theory and states that F u can be uniquely
reconstructed from the sampled values of F u at u = n where
n 0, 1, 2, 3,L L .

Above equation guarantees the desired performance of the taper

only at the integer values of u but not on all other values of u.

If we assume that an for n N are zero, then the expression for F(u)
can be written as
sin u n
F u 2 an
N
n N u n

Since n is an integer the above equation can be written as

N sin u sin u N u
F u 2 an 1 an 1
n n
2
n N u n u nN u n

The summation in the above equation can be represented as the partial

fraction expansion of a function P u u
N
n 1
2
n2 where P(u) is an
polynomial in u of degree 2N and satisfies the condition P u P u .
*

sin u P u
Therefore F u 2
u Nn1u2 n2

3.10 The Bode Fano Criterion:

If a lossless network has been used to match an arbitrary load
impedance ZL with a line of characteristic impedance Z 0 then Bode
Fano criterion states that ln 1 d where

0 is the time constant of

the network.
The expression of depends on the characteristics of the load
impedance and is given in the table, below

Load Characteristics 1

Series R L
RL

Series R C 02RC

Parallel R L 02L R

Parallel R C
1 RC

Since ln 1 is proportional to the return loss at the input of the

matching network therefore the left hand side of Bode Fano Criteria
represents the total area between the return loss curve and return loss
= 0 axis.
So according to Bode Fano criterion, the total area between the
return loss curve and return loss = 0 axis must be less than or equal to
.

Therefore it reveals that an attempt to improve matching over a given

frequency band will result in a poorer matching on the other part of the
spectrum.

Now let us assume that a

hypothetical matching network
produces a uniform reflection
coefficient m over a bandwidth
and unity outside the bandwidth
Since ln(1) = 0, we can write

ln 1 d
ln m

0

1
f
m e


2 ln m

Above equation reveals that a larger permissible mismatch

corresponds to greater bandwidth of matching.
Since ln m as m 0 , the above inequality also represents that it is
impossible to obtain a perfect match over a non-zero bandwidth. At best
we can obtain a perfect match at finite discrete frequencies within any
finite frequency interval.