BASIC HYDROLOGY

Water ..

Single Resource which has no substitute

Limited Resource
has Social, Economic, Political and
Environmental importance

Every organism, individual, and ecosystem on the

planet depends on water for survival.

Poor water management and water shortage lead to

disease, malnutrition, reduced economic growth, social
instability, conflicts and environmental disaster.
Need for Hydrology

water is central to our life

prosperity and prospect of society depends on
availability of fresh and unpolluted water
accelerated growth of industry and population

These things made us to think for:

better utilisation of water
efficient management of water resource projects
maintaining quality at reasonable levels
and without damaging natural water cycle

Only possible by knowledge of Hydrology and

understanding the water cycle in its natural form.
HYDROLOGY

Deals with the occurrence, distribution, movement

and properties of waters of the earth and their
environmental relationships.

It is an earth science, which links Atmosphere,

Hydrosphere, Lithosphere and Biosphere.

Domains of hydrology include hydrometeorology,

surface hydrology, hydrogeology, drainage basin
management and water quality, where water plays
the central role.

It is an inetrdisciplinary geoscience.
Hydrology is concerned with:

Water availability
Rainfall-Runoff relationships
Groundwater recharge
Soil moisture status
Agriculture
Water quality
Floods and flood plain management
Drought
Industry
Navigation
Urbanization
The Global Water Budget
Hydrologic Cycle

Hydrologic cycle describes the continuous circulation

of water throughout our environment as it moves
from the oceans, to the atmosphere and to the land,
eventually returning to the oceans.

It is driven by energy of the sun and gravity of the

earth, and proceeds endlessly with or without
human intervention.

Hydrologic cycle is made up of series of complex

processes and storages.
Quantitative Representation of Components of Hydrological Cycle
Approximate Annual Hydrologic Budget

Temperate climate Semi-arid climate Arid climate

% mm % mm % mm

Total precipitation 100 500 - 1500 100 200 - 500 100 0 - 200

Evapo-transpiration ~ 33 165 - 495 ~ 50 100 - 250 ~ 70 0 - 140

Groundwater
~ 33 165 - 495 ~ 20 40 - 100 ~1 0-2
recharge

Surface runoff ~ 33 165 - 495 ~ 30 60 - 150 ~ 29 0 - 58

Hydrologic Scale

Depending on the hydrologic problem, the hydrologic

cycle or its components can be treated at different
scales of time and space

Global scale is the largest spatial scale and

watershed/catchment/drainage basin is the smallest

Watershed scale is the most basic of all

All other scales can be constructed by building on the

drainage basin scale
Hydrologic Time Scale

The different storages and processes can occur at

different time scales.

Surface processes (evaporation, precipitation and

surface runoff) occur much more rapidly than
subsurface processes (groundwater flow,
infiltration, recharge and discharge).

Hours days weeks ten daily months years

decades centuries millennia
Watershed/Catchment/Drainage Basin

It is a natural area, which collects rain or stream

water and discharges it through a common outlet
(mouth).

The extent of watershed is generally determined

from the topography or divide.

Divide represents the highest elevation points along

its perimeter.

It is a unit wherein the hydrologic cycle components

can be balanced using water balance equation.
Watershed / Basin / Catchment
Contributing Area
Watershed boundary
or Drainage divide

Outlet/Mouth
Defining a Watershed

Defining a watershed is
generally referred to as
delineating the watershed.

The process involves

determining that area within
which water would drain to a
common point.

Watershed can be
delineated, using the
contours, for the indicated
watershed outlet.
The functions of a catchment/watershed

captures precipitation
stores water once it infiltrates into soil
slowly releases water into rivers, and oceans

Characteristics and activities within its boundaries

impact runoff and quality of water leaving the
catchment/watershed.

It is a "resource region" where eco-system is closely

interconnected around the basic resource - water.

Therefore,it is an ideal management unit.

Catchment/watershed is an open system with:
energy inputs
hydrological responses or outputs

Energy inputs to the watershed

climate above the surface
tectonic activities below its surface

Hydrological responses of a watershed

responses through the watershed mouth
responses through the watershed surface

Responses of a watershed are controlled by the

intermediate processes and watershed characteristics.
Hydrologic Processes of Interest

Precipitation

Interception

Evapo-transpiration

Infiltration

Runoff

Deep Percolation
Precipitation

Primary mechanism of transferring water from

atmosphere to the surface of the earth

Precipitation is the primary "input" for hydrologic

cycle and its major component

It is the source of most of the fresh water on

the planet

Rain, drizzle, snow, hail, sleet .... are different forms

Key characteristics are:

magnitude (P)
expressed as depth
intensity (p)
rate of rainfall per hour
frequency, F (return period, T)
frequency of occurrence of a rainfall
T = 1/F e.g. 10 yr storm, 100 yr storm
duration (t)
spatial distribution (isohyets)
estimated from point measurements
 25

20

15
Precipitation
(mm)
10

5
Hyetograph
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (hours)

Isohyetal Map
Major Climatic Zones (FAO, 1986)
(as per rainfall characteristics)

Desert : less than 100 mm (0 1 month)

Arid : 100 to 400 mm (1 3 months)
Semi-arid : 400 to 600 mm (3 4 months)
Sub-humid : 600 to 1200 mm (4 6 months)
Moist Sub-humid : 1200 to 1500 mm (6 9 months)
Humid : above 1500 mm (9 12 months)
Primary steps for the formation of precipitation:

- creation of saturation conditions in the

atmosphere (type of lifting of air)

- phase change from vapor to liquid

(cloud formation by condensation)

- growth of droplets to precipitable size

Mechanisms of Precipitation

Frontal:
when a cold air mass collides with a warm air mass

Convective:
when moist, warm air heats near ground surface,
it warms, rises, cools, and releases its moisture

Orographic:
when moist air is forced upward over mountains,
it cools, releasing its moisture as rain or snow.

Cyclones:
when a self-sustaining low pressure system
develops in the tropics.
Different mechanisms
cause air masses to lift
and cooling, resulting in
precipitation.
Rainfall Measurement

Gauges - Recording & non-recording

Weather Station for all meteorological parameters

Radar - emitting radiation at wavelengths ranging

between 1 and 10 cm, and receiving the
echo from targets such as raindrops

Satellite Derived - suitable for inaccessible regions

using passive microwave, infrared, or visible
radiation sensors, by measuring cloud albedo

QPF (Quantitative Precipitation Forecast)

from numerical weather prediction models
 Self Recording Raingauge
Ordinary Raingauge
- weighing bucket
- tipping bucket
- float type
Raingauge has influence over an area and amount of
rain recorded at a raingauge is assigned to that area.

Thiessen and Isohyetal methods are used for the

computation of catchment (aerial) rainfall
from point measurements.

Nexrad is a method of aerially weighting rainfall using

radar based estimates of the intensity/amount of the
precipitation during a time period.
Thiessen Method
Isohyetal Method
Interception

A temporary storage before the next process begins

The falling precipitation is intercepted by the

vegetation in an area

It is typically either distributed as runoff (delayed) or

evaporated back to the atmosphere.

Key characteristics are:

density of land cover
water holding capacity of plants
rate at which water evaporate from plant surface
Interception amounts to

15 to 40% for conifer forests in North America.

Natural teak forests in Thailand intercept 65% of

rainfall.

Studies on Himalayan forests have shown a loss of

25 35 %.

For Western Ghat region, it is 10 25 %.

Very thick ground litter layers also intercept

precipitation.
Interception Vs Amount and Intensity of Rainfall
Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration (ET) is a term used to describe

the sum of evaporation and plant transpiration.

Key characteristics are:

properties of the plant
type, root depth, stage of growth
properties of the soil
texture, moisture content, depth to WT
climatic conditions
solar radiation, vapour pressure,
temperature, wind velocity
 Evapotranspiration (ET)

Evaporation Transpiration

Open Water Vegetation

Soil Plants
Surface Surface

Sub-processes in ET
Evaporation Process

Energy required to change state of water molecules

from liquid to vapour, latent heat of vaporization

direct solar radiation provides this energy

driving force is the difference between vapour
pressure at the water surface and that of the
surrounding atmosphere
as evaporation proceeds, air becomes
saturated and the process will slow down
replacement of the saturated air with drier
air depends greatly on wind speed

Solar radiation, air temperature, humidity and

wind speed are influencing evaporation process.
Potential Evapotranspiration (PET)

Evaporation and transpiration from a vegetated

surface with unlimited water supply.

PET is the maximum rate under prevailing

meteorological conditions.

Actual ET depends on type of crop (or vegetation),

its stage of growth, soil moisture, and climatic
variables
Determining Evapotranspiration

Estimation of ET
Energy balance and Mass Balance Approach
Catchment water balance
Soil water balance
Lysimeters

ET computed from meteorological data

development of empirical equations

ET estimated from pan evaporation

relates the PET to the evaporation from
free water surface from a standard
evaporation pan through pan coefficient Kp
Class A Pan
Atmometer
Lysimeter
Infiltration

Infiltration is one of the important components of

hydrologic cycle

It divides the rainfall into runoff and groundwater.

Key characteristics are:

rate of precipitation as compared to infiltration
capacity of the soil
initial moisture content
soil texture
vegetation
surface conditions and human interference
Unsaturated soil zone occupies the centre stage in the
hydrological cycle.

This zone behaves as a leaky reservoir with the ability

to absorb, retain, and transmit water.

Input at the surface is precipitation or irrigation , a

part of which is absorbed by soil

Infiltrated water is partitioned into ET, interflow, and

recharge to ground water reservoir.
Water Movement in Unsaturated Soil Zone
Infiltration occurs initially at a high rate.

As the rain continues, the rate decreases and

ultimately reaches a constant value.

Infiltration rate
The actual amount of water entering the soil per
unit time (average rate over a finite time period).

Infiltration capacity
Maximum amount of water per unit time which
a given soil profile can absorb when it is maintained
in contact with water at atmospheric pressure.

It is a soil property.
Infiltration Process in Different Soils
A curve denoting infiltration rate or cumulative depth of water
infiltrated against time is called an infiltration curve.

f f (f f )e kt
i c o c
Measurement of Infiltration

Complex process of infiltration presents considerable

difficulty in its measurement.

Theoretical equations, empirical equations,

field measurement methods

Arial Measurement
Hydrograph Method
Rain simulator (Sprinkler infiltrometer)

Point Measurements
Infiltrometer
- single, double, self-recording
Permeameters
Permeameter
 Measuring infiltration

Double ring infiltrometer Tension infiltrometer

Guelph Permeameter
Infiltration Equations fi infiltration rate at time t
fc final infiltration rate
f f (f f )e kt
f0 initial infiltration rate
Horton i c o c k is a parameter

i infiltration rate
Green-Ampt i = a + b/I I cum. infiltration
a, b parameters

I cum. Infiltration at t
Philips I = S t0.5 + At S Sorptivity (cm/h1/2)
T time
A parameter

Kostiakovs I = BT-m I Cumulative Infiltration (mm)

T Cumulative Time (min.)
B, m parameters
Runoff

Key characteristics are:

relative rate at which precipitation falls on the
land as compared to infiltration capacity of soil
slope
initial moisture content
vegetation
shape of the basin
human activities (urbanization, etc.)
Duration of excess
precipitation

Lag time

Time of concentration

Base flow

Runoff Hydrograph
 www.aquatic.uoguelph.ca/rivers/chphys.htm

Runoff Hydrograph
 1800
1600
Discharge in Cumecs

1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1 31 61 91 121 151 181 211 241 271 301 331 361
Days (water year 1982-83)

Continuous Hydrograph
Runoff Generation

Infiltration excess overland flow

occurs when rate of rainfall exceeds infiltration
rate and depression storages filled

Also called Hortonian or Unsaturated overland flow.

Saturation excess overland flow

occurs when soil is saturated and depression
storages filled, and rain continues to fall

Subsurface return flow or Interflow

infiltrated water flows laterally through soil and
exfiltrate (flow out of the soil)
 Flow paths

www.usda.gov/stream_restoration/chap1.html Fig. - 2.10

 Discharge Measurement

Velocity Measurement

Current Meter
Rating curve
Broad Crested Weir

Trapezoidal Flume
AWLR
Impervious cover and runoff ...

decreased groundwater recharge

downstream flooding due to increased runoff
rapid erosion of stream banks
Effect of Urbanization on Flow
Estimation of Runoff

Empirical Equations
Envelope Curves
Unit Hydrograph Methods
SCS Runoff Curve Number Method
Rainfall Runoff Models
Runoff Coefficient
% of Precipitation that appears as Runoff (=Q/P)

Forested 0.06-0.20
Asphalt 0.70-0.95
Concrete 0.80-0.95

Farmland/pasture 0.05-0.30

lawns, well drained 0.05-0.20

(sandy soil)

lawns, poor drainage 0.13-0.35

(clay soil)

driveways, walkways 0.75-0.85

Estimating Precipitation Excess

0.8

2
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4 Uniform infiltration/loss rate

0.3
1
0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
0
Deep Percolation

Process by which the infiltrated water replenishes

the groundwater storage

Key characteristics are:

relative moisture status of the sub-surface.
properties of the subsurface soil texture,
hydraulic conductivity, geology
Once the water infiltrates into the ground, downward
movement of water through soil profile begins.

percolating water moves as a saturated front

under the influence of gravity ....

or, it may move as unsaturated flow

due to capillary forces.

Vertical percolation of water into various levels or

zones allows for storage in the subsurface.

Stored subsurface water is held and released as either

evaporation, transpiration, or as stream flow.
Subsurface Processes in the Hydrological Cycle
Groundwater

essentially used as a natural resource for

domestic purposes.

also discharges into surface water systems

and account for river runoff (low flow/base flow).

Importance of g.w. system is often underestimated,

partly due to the fact that it is not immediately visible.

Occurs when water recharges the subsurface strata

(aquifers) through cracks and pores in soil and rock.

Aquifers are geological units, which can store and

supply significant quantities of water.
Groundwater System
Cone of depression
Groundwater Management
Water Balance

It is an accounting of the inflow, outflow, and storage

of water in a designated hydrologic system.

For a specific time period, continuity equation can be

applied by balancing the gains and losses of water in
a region with the quantities of water stored in the
region

Water balancing can be done for different systems:

Global, watershed, land surface, soil moisture,
atmosphere, groundwater, .....
Input Output = Change in water storage

I O = S

For a catchment:

P Q G ET S = 0
P = precipitation
Q = stream discharge
G = Groundwater discharge
ET = Evapotranspiration
S = Change in storage
Groundwater Balance

Rr + Rc + Ri + Rt + Si + Ig = Et + Tp + Se + Og + S

where,
Rr = recharge from rainfall
Rc = recharge from canal seepage
Ri = recharge from field irrigation
Rt = recharge from tanks
Si = influent seepage from rivers
Ig = groundwater inflow
Et = evapo-transpiration from groundwater
Tp = draft from groundwater
Se = effluent seepage to rivers
Og = groundwater outflow
S = change in groundwater storage
Water Quality

Defined as those physical, chemical or biological

characteristics of water by which the user evaluates
the acceptability of water.

A scientific rationale, on which decision or judgment

on the suitability of water quality to support a
designated use is based, is called water quality
criteria.
Pollution is caused by .

Many human activities and their by-products

have the potential to pollute water.

industries
urban infrastructure
agriculture
leaking underground storage tanks
landfills and dumps
discharges from abandoned mines
deliberate or accidental pollution incidents
Groundwater Contamination
Implementation of water pollution prevention
strategies and restoration of ecological systems are
integral components of all development plans.

To preserve our water resources and environment,

we need to make systematic changes in the way
we grow our food, manufacture the goods and
dispose off the waste.
Current Water Scenario

Resources are scarce

Demands are more than supplies
Environmental/Ecological issues are serious
Policy and institutional issues are complicated
Current approach is sectoral and fragmented
Present Status

Decreasing per-capita availability

Degrading water quality
Increasing competition within sectors and society
Urban versus agriculture
Haves versus have nots
Upstream versus downstream
National versus international

Increasing conflict with the environment

effects of climate change is also a priority area.

Water Resources Management and
Conservation

The practices of planning, developing, distribution

and optimum utilization of water resources under
defined water polices and regulations.

A holistic, well planned and long term strategy

is required for sustainable water resources
management.

Control and utilise water for beneficial uses or to

avoid adverse impacts
Water Conservation

Emphasizes the need to modify the space and time

availability of water to meet the demands.

The concept also highlights the need for judicious

use of water.

Improving availability of water through augmentation

by means of storage of water in reservoirs, tanks, soil
and as groundwater.
The four R's in water conservation:
Reap, Recharge, Reduction and Reuse.

harvesting of rainwater
its recharge into the soil
reduction in its use
reuse of used/wasted water

Aim of the water conservation is to:

Make Running Water to Walk

Walking water to Stand ..
and Standing Water to Percolate.