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12/4/2017 1
DEFINITION
Corrosion is defined as the gradual
destruction or deterioration of
metals or alloys by the chemical or
electrochemical reaction with its
environment.
Slow
Surface phenomenon
Amount of Iron wasted is of total
production
A huge loss of 2 to 25 billion dollars per year
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Metals
Ores
Bauxite
Unstable
Hematite
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Iron Pillar, Delhi
Kelpies, Scotland
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patina The patina slows corrosion because it
resists the electron flow in a corrosion cell
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Brown Nails
Iron
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In pipes or tanks due to the corrosive action
of either water or soil.
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The fourth most abundant element in the
earth's crust
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The tarnishing of silver requires an
atmosphere containing hydrogen sulfide,
oxygen and water vapor.
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The most electrically conductive of all
metals.
Convey even a tiny electrical current in
temperatures varying from -55 to +200
centigrade
Gold Tarnishing?
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Possible causes include:
Perspiration (everyone's body chemistry is different)
Perfume, hair or deodorant sprays,
Tarnishing during storage (storage boxes may contain
organic sulfur compounds),
Leaching of acid/ cleaning solutions from surface
microporosity from cast jewelry; this causes corrosion locally
(such porosity may even trap perspiration during wear,
causing local corrosion)
Preparation of vegetables such as onions and spices (many
foodstuffs contain sulfur compounds and others are also
acidic).
www.jewellerycatalogue.co.uk/gold/allergy.php
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Iridium
Willamette Meteorite
-4.7 ppm Iridium
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1. Dry indoor location and/or outdoor
location in a rural environments.
2. Outdoor location in a heavy industrial
environment.
3. Wet location with minimal chemical
exposure.
4. Wet location with moderate chemical
exposure.
5. Wet location with salts, acids, and
alkalines exposures.
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Corrosion in acid solutions is much more rapid than in neutral solutions, and the latter is more rapid
than in alkaline solutions.
Hydrogen gas is usually evolved from the surface of the metal during corrosion in acid solutions.
The products of corrosion consist, mainly, of black or green ferrous hydroxide next to the metal, and
reddish-brown ferric hydroxide (rust) which forms the outer layer, with graded mixtures of the two
in between.
In natural water, the precipitated rust usually carries down some compounds
containing lime,, magnesia, and silica, together with other insoluble material from
the water. These substances have considerable influence on the structure and
density of the rust coating on the metal surface.' A loose, nonadherent coating
under ordinary conditions may accelerate locally the rate of corrosion; a uniformly
dense and adherent coating may cut down this rate very considerably.
Surface films, sometimes invisible, often play an important part in controlling the
rate and distribution of corrosion. These films have been made visible by
separation from some metals and have been shown to raise the potential of these
metals making them more resistant in certain environments. In fact the superior
resistance of metals like chromium and aluminum, for example, is undoubtedly
due largely to the formation of such films.
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When iron corrodes in the atmosphere the amount of
ferrous rust produced is small, but when formed under
water the corrosion products often contain a large
proportion of ferrous iron.
Corrosion at normal temperature increases with
increase of concentration in dilute solutions of many
neutral salts, particularly chlorides, but decreases again
in more concentrated solutions, other things being
equal.
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Giovanni Aldini, Italy
Galvanism
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Svante Arrhenius,Sweden
conductivities of electrolytes
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CLASSIFICATION OF CORROSION
Based on the environment, corrosion is classified in to
1. Dry or Chemical corrosion
2. Wet or Electrochemical corrosion.
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Oxidation corrosion is brought about by the direct
attack of oxygen at low or high temperatures on
metal surface in the absence of moisture.
Alkali metals like (Li, Na, K, etc) and alkaline-earth
metals (Mg, Ca, Sr, etc) are rapidly oxidised at low
tempt.
At high temperature, almost all metals (except Ag,
Au and Pt) are oxidized.
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MECHANISM OF DRY CORROSION
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Dry Corrosion contd.
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Oxidation
Oxide is the more stable than the metal (for most metals)
Oxidation rate becomes significant usually only at high temperatures
The nature of the oxide determines the rate of oxidation
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The nature of oxide film formed on the metal surface plays in
important role in oxidation corrosion.
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(iii) VOLATILE OXIDE LAYER
The oxide layer volatilizes as soon as it is
formed, leaving the metal surface for
further corrosion.
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The ratio of the volume of the oxide formed to
the volume of the metal is called pilling-
bedworth ratio.
R = Md/nmD
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(PILLING-BEDWORTH RULE contd)
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P B ratios of metals
Metal Metal oxide RPB
Calcium Calcium oxide 0.64
Magnesium Magnesium oxide 0.81
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To Note.
For good oxidation resistance the oxide should be adherent
to the surface
Adherence of the oxide
= f(the volume of the oxide formed :
the volume of metal consumed in the oxidation)
= f(Pilling-Bedworth ratio)
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Gases like SO2, CO2, Cl2, H2S etc induce corrosion action on metals
Corrosion effect depends on the chemical affinity between the metal
and the gas.
The degree of attack by gases depends on the formation of protective
or non-protective films on the metal surface.
(1) If the film is non-porous or protective, the intensity of attack
decreases. Eg. AgCl film attack of Cl2 on Ag
(2) If the film is porous or non-protective, the surface of the whole metal
is gradually destroyed.
Eg. Dry Cl2 gas attack on Sn formation of volatile SnCl4 fresh
surface is exposed for further attack
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Oxidation resistant materials
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CORROSION BY HYDROGEN
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(b) DECARBURISATION
At higher temperature atomic hydrogen is
formed by the thermal dissociation of
molecular hydrogen.
H2 2H
When steel is exposed to this environment,
the atomic hydrogen readily combines with
carbon of steel and produces methane gas.
C + 4H CH4
Collection of these gases in the voids develop
very high pressure, which causes cracking.
Thus the process of decrease in carbon
content in steel is termed as
Decarburisation of steel.
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LIQUID - METAL CORROSION
This is due to the chemical action of
flowing liquid metal at high temperature.
The corrosion reaction involves either,
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Wet corrosion occurs under the foll. conditions,
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(a) Acidic environment
2H+ + 2e- H2
Thus the metal ions (from anodic part) and non-metallic ions
(from cathodic part ) diffuse towards each other through
conduction medium and form a corrosion product between
anode and cathode.
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Metals have negative reduction potential
i.e., below hydrogen reduction potential
value in the electrochemical series get
dissolved in acidic solution with
simultaneous liberation of hydrogen gas.
Example: Iron metal in contact with non-
oxidizing acid like HCl results in H2
evolution
At anode: Iron (Fe) undergoes dissolution to
Fe2+ with the liberation of electrons.
At cathode: The liberated electrons follow
from anode to cathode, where H+ ions get
reduced to H2.
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b) Absorption of oxygen or formation of hydroxide
ion type corrosion
Fe surface usually contains a coating of Iron oxide and if
this oxide layer develops, cracking happens.
As a result anodic areas are created on the surface and
remaining area acts as cathode.
Example: Iron metal in contact with a neutral solution of
electrolyte in the presence of O2, OH- ions are formed.
At anode: Iron (Fe) undergoes dissolution to Fe2+ with the
liberation of electrons.
At cathode: The liberated electrons follow from anode to
cathode, where dissolved O2 is consumed to form OH-
ions.
1/2O2 + H2O + 2e- 2OH-
Fe2+ + 2OH- Fe(OH)2
Fe(OH)2 + 2H2O + O2 4Fe(OH)3 (rust)
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Chemical Corrosion Electrochemical Corrosion
It occurs only in dry condition It occurs in the presence of
moisture or electrolyte
It is due to the direct chemical It is due to the set up of a
attack of the metal by the large number of cathodic and
environment anodic areas
Even a homogeneous metal Hetergeneous surface or
surface gets corroded bimetallic contact is required
for corrosion
Corrosion products Corrosion occurs at the anode,
accumulate in the same place, while products formed
where corrosion occurs. elsewhere
Chemical corrosion is self- It is continuous process
controlled
It follows adsorption It follows electrochemical
mechanism reaction
Eg. Formation of mild scale on Eg. Rusting of iron in moist
iron surface atmosphere
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Galvanic
series
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GALVANIC CORROSION
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Bolt and nut made of the same metal is preferred.
Why?
It is preferred in practice, because galvanic
corrosion is avoided due to homogeneous metals (no
anodic and cathodic part).
Prevention:
Selection of metals & alloys
Insulating dissimilar metals
Using inhibitors
Applying cathodic protection
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Copper Zinc Joint
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Few more examples for galvanic/bimetallic corrosion
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DIFFERENTIAL AERATION CORROSION
Example
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At anode (less aerated) corrosion occurs
M M2+ +2e-
At cathode (more aerated part) OH- ions are
produced
O2 +H2O + 2e- 2 OH- 12/4/2017 54
Examples for differential aeration
corrosion
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(a) Pitting Corrosion
Example
Metal area covered by a drop of water, sand, dust,
scale etc.,
At anode
Iron is oxidized to Fe2+ ions (Fe Fe2+ +2e-)
At cathode
Oxygen is converted to OH- ions. (1/2O2 +H2O +2e- 2OH-)
Net reaction is
Fe2+ +2OH- Fe(OH)2 Fe(OH)3
This type of corrosion is called pitting.
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Why are dust particles so corrosive?
Dust particles are not corrosive in themselves unless they are from
corrosive environments.
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If a crevice between different metallic objects
or between metal and non-metallic material is
in contact with liquids, the crevice becomes the
anodic region and suffers corrosion.
This is due to less oxygen with crevice area.
The exposed areas act as the cathode.
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Differential aeration corrosion may also
occur in different parts of pipeline.
Buried pipelines or cables passing from one
type of soil to another, example from clay
(less aerated) to sand (more aerated) may get
corroded due to differential aeration.
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A wire fence in which the areas where the wires cross are
less aerated than the rest of the fence and hence corrosion
occurs at the wire crossings, which are anodic.
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An employee opens his tiffin box on the road
side to see, whether he is going to office, or
coming back from office.
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Rate and extent of corrosion depends
mainly on
i. Nature of the metal
ii. Nature of the environment
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(f) Nature of the oxide film
Metals such as Mg, Ca, Ba, etc., form oxides
whose volume is less than the volume of the
metal.
Hence, the oxide film formed will be
porous, through which oxygen can diffuse
and bring about further corrosion.
On the other hand metals like Al, Cr, Ni
etc. form oxides whose volume is equal to
metal and the non-porous oxide film so
formed will protect the metal from further
corrosion.
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(A) Temperature
The rate of chemical
reaction and the rate of
diffusion of ions increases
with rise in temperature
Hence, corrosion increases
with temperature.
A passive metal may
become active at a higher
temperature.
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(B) Humidity
The rate of corrosion will be more, when the
humidity in the environment is high.
The moisture acts as a solvent for the oxygen
in the air to produce the electrolyte, which is
essential for setting up a corrosion cell.
Rusting of iron increases when the relative
humidity of air reaches from 60 to 80
percent.
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Effect of pH
The rate of corrosion is maximum
when the corrosive environment is
acidic.
In general, acidic environment is more
corrosive than alkaline or neutral
medium.
Corrosion rate can be reduced by
increasing the pH of the medium.
But metals such as Al, Zn dissolves in
alkaline medium.
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Significant hazard for corrosion of concrete in soil occurs
when:
organic matter is >12% and clay is <10% and pH (1:5
soil:water) is <5.1, or pH (1:5 soil:CaCl2) is <4.3;
clay is <35% and pH (1:5 soil:water) is <4.6, or pH (1:5
soil:CaCl2) is <3.9; or
salinity >15.6 dS/m ).
Other significant soil conditions contributing to concrete
corrosion include significant amounts of sodium and/or
magnesium sulfates. These mineral properties of soil can
only be detected by XRD.
Extra care must be taken to protect buried iron or steel where a
rust hazard occurs.
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Potential-pH Diagrams (Pourbaix Diagrams)
Graphical representations of the domains of stability of metal
ions, oxides, hydroxides, etc. in aqueous solution.
Potential
pH
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If the electrolyte consists of silicate
ions, they form insoluble silicates and
prevent further corrosion.
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The rate of corrosion can be controlled by either
modifying the metal or the environment.
1. Proper Designing
A major factor in the corrosion failure of a component
is a faulty geometrical design.
Some important design principles are:
1) Avoid crevices
2) Avoid residual moisture
3) Avoid galvanic corrosion
Galvanic corrosion can be prevented by the following
methods,
a) Use electrical insulators
b) Introduce an easily exchangeable corroding places
c) Avoid protruding parts.
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(1) MATERIAL SELECTION
(selection of proper material for a particular
corrosive service)
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Other than Ni, Cr and C, the following alloying elements
may also present in stainless steel: Mo, N, Si, Mn, Cu, Ti,
Nb, Ta and/or W.
1. Chromium
Minimum concentration of Cr in a
stainless steel is 12-14wt.%
Structure : BCC
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2. Nickel
Structure: FCC (austenite forming element/stabilize
austenitic structure)
Added to produce austenitic or duplex stainless
steels. These materials possess excellent ductility,
formability and toughness as well as weld-ability.
Nickel improves mechanical properties of stainless
steels servicing at high temperatures.
Nickel increases aqueous corrosion resistance of
materials.
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3. Carbon
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Dust particles and man-made pollution CO, NO,
methane, etc.
Temperature high T & high humidity accelerates
corrosion.
Rainfall excess washes corrosive materials and
debris but scarce may leave water droplets.
Proximity to sea
Air pollution NaCl, SO2, sulfurous acid, etc.
Humidity cause condensation.
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Wall thickness allowance to accommodate for corrosion
effect.
Avoid excessive mechanical stresses and stress concentrations
in components exposed to corrosive mediums.
Avoid galvanic contact / electrical contact between dissimilar
metals to prevent galvanic corrosion.
Avoid sharp bends in piping systems when high velocities
and/or solid in suspension are involved erosion corrosion.
Avoid crevices e.g. weld rather than rivet tanks and other
containers, proper trimming of gasket, etc.
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Avoid sharp corners paint tends to be thinner at sharp
corners and often starts to fail.
Provide for easy drainage (esp tanks) avoid remaining
liquids collect at bottom. E.g steel is resistant against
concentrated sulfuric acid. But if remaining liquid is
exposed to air, acid tend to absorb moisture, resulting in
dilution and rapid attack occurs.
Avoid hot spots during heat transfer operations localized
heating and high corrosion rates. Hot spots also tend to
produce stresses SCC failures.
Design to exclude air except for active-passive metals and
alloys coz they require O2 for protective films.
Most general rule : AVOID HETEROGENEITY!!!
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Provide barrier between metal and environment.
Coatings may act as sacrificial anode or release substance
that inhibit corrosive attack on substrate.
Metal coatings :
Noble silver, copper, nickel, Cr, Sn, Pb on steel.
Should be free of pores/discontinuity which creates
small anode-large cathode leading to rapid attack at
the damaged areas.
Sacrificial Zn, Al, Cd on steel. Exposed substrate
will be cathodic & will be protected.
Application hot dipping, flame spraying, cladding,
electroplating, vapor deposition, etc.
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Surface modification to structure or composition by use
of directed energy or particle beams. E.g ion implantation
and laser processing.
Inorganic coating : cement coatings, glass coatings, ceramic
coatings, chemical conversion coatings.
Chemical conversion anodizing, phosphatizing, oxide
coating, chromate.
Organic coating : paints, lacquers, varnishes. Coating liquid
generally consists of solvent, resin and pigment. The resin
provides chemical and corrosion resistance, and pigments
may also have corrosion inhibition functions.
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No Environment Proper material
1 Nitric acid Stainless steels
2 Caustic Nickel and nickel
alloys
3 Hydrofluoric acid Monel (Ni-Cu)
4 Hot hydrochloric acid Hastelloys (Ni-Cr-
Mo) (Chlorimets)
5 Dilute sulfuric acid Lead
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No Environment Proper material
6 atmospheric exposure Aluminium
7 Distilled water Tin
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2. Cathodic Protection
The principle involved in cathodic
protection is to force the metal to be
protected to behave like a cathode.
Since, there will not be any anodic area on
the metal, corrosion does not occur.
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SACRIFICIAL ANODIC PROTECTION METHOD
12/4/2017 93
Examples of sacrificial anode
This method is used for the protection of
ships and boats.
Sheets of zinc and magnesium are hung
around the hull of the ship.
Zinc and magnesium being anodic to
iron get corroded.
Since they are sacrificed in the process
of saving iron (anode), they are called
sacrificial anodes.
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Applications of Sacrificial Anode
Protection of underground pipelines and
cables from soil corrosion.
Magnesium rods are inserted in to
domestic water boilers or tanks to prevent
the formation of rusty water.
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Zinc wrapped against an Iron bar
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Applications
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In this method, an impressed current is
applied in the opposite direction to nullify
the corrosion current and convert the
corroding metal from anode to cathode.
This can be done by connecting negative
terminal of the battery to the metallic
structure to be protected.
Positive terminal of battery is connected to
an inert anode. inert anode used for this
purpose is graphite or platinised titanium.
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The anode is surrounded by backfill
(containing mixture of gypsum, coke,
sodium sulphate) to improve the
electrical contact between the anode and
the surrounding soil.
APPLICATION OF IMPRESSED CURRENT
PROTECTION
This type of cathodic protection is
applied to open water-box coolers, water
tanks, buried oil and water pipes,
condensers, marine piers, transmission
line towers, etc.,
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Steel when submerged
in sea water has a
normal potential of
-500mV to -600mV
By using Impressed
current, the potential
can be raised to -750 mV
Reference electrodes
are employed to check
the potential of structure 10
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Sacrificial anodic Impressed current
method method
No external power External power
supply is necessary. supply must be
This method present.
requires periodical Here anodes are
replacement of stable and do not
sacrificial anode. disintegrate.
Investment is low. Investment is more.
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Soil corrosion Soil corrosion
effects are not effects are taken
taken in to in to account.
account.
This is most This method is
economical well suited for
method especially large structures
when short-term and long term
protection is operations.
required.
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DEAERATION
The presence of increased amount of
oxygen is harmful and increase the
corrosion rate.
Deareation involves removal of dissolved
oxygen by increase of temperature with
mechanical agitation.
It also removes dissolved CO2 of water.
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DEHUMIDIFICATION
In this method, moisture from the air is
removed by lowering the relative humidity of
the surrounding air.
This is done by adding silica gel (or) alumina,
which adsorbs moisture preferentially on its
surface.
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DEFINITION
A corrosion inhibitors is a substance which when
added in small quantities to the aqueous corrosive
environment effectively decreases the rate of
corrosion of the metal.
They work by removing electrons from the metal,
thereby pushing it into positive region where an
oxide film spontaneously forms
Inhibitors are classified in to three types,
ANODIC
CATHODIC
VAPOUR PHASE 12/4/2017
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6
ANODIC INHIBITORS
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CATHODIC INHIBITORS
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In a neutral solution, the cathodic reaction
is,
H2O + O2 + 2e- 2OH-(aq)
The formation of OH- ions is only due to the
presence of oxygen.
By eliminating the oxygen from the medium,
the corrosion rate can be reduced.
O2 can be removed by adding some reducing
agents like Na2SO3 or by deaeration.
Salts of Zn, Mg, Ni are employed as they
form insoluble metallic hydroxide which
forms impermeable self barriers.
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Vapour phase inhibitors are organic inhibitors which
readily sublime and form a protective layer on the
metal surface.
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Anodic coating Galvanization:
It is produced by anodic coating metals
(Zn, Al, Cd) on the surface of base metal
(Fe) based on the relative negative
electrode potential.
Cathodic coating:
It is produced by cathodic coating metals
(Sn, Cr, Ni) on Fe surface based on the
relative positive electrode potential of coat
metal.
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Hot dipping
Electroplating Cu, Cr, Ni, Au, Ag
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It is one of the common method of applying
metallic coating on the surface of base metals.
Hot dipping is a process of coating the base metal
by immersing it in the molten coat metal.
Examples: Galvanizing and Tinning
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Galvanizing: Fe or steel is coated with a
thin coat of Zn by immersing in molten Zn
to prevent rusting.
Fe or steel base metal is cleaned by acid
pickling using dil. H2SO4 (60-90 0C) for
15-20 min.
Base metal dipped in molten Zn (430 0C)
and then passed through rollers to
correct the thickness of the film.
NH4Cl flux used to protect the surface of
molten Zn from oxide formation.
Annealed at 250 0C and cooled slowly
Coating of Iron pipes, screws, bolts,
wires, etc.
Poisonous for utensils that store food
stuffs
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Tinning: In this process tin is coated over mild
steel sheets immersed in molten tin (Sn).
The sheet is subject to acid pickling and passed
through a bath of molten tin covered with a
flux of ZnCl2.
After coating, the sheet is passed through palm
oil to protect from oxidation
Finally the sheet is passed to roller to get
uniform thickness.
It is used for the coating of steel, Cu and brass
sheets that store food stuffs.
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An electrochemical process where metal ions are
transferred from a solution and are deposited as
a thin layer onto surface of a cathode.
The setup is composed DC circuit with an anode
and a cathode sitting in a bath of solution that
has the metal ions necessary for coating or
plating
Electroplating can enhance;
Chemical properties---increase corrosion resistance
Physical properties---increase thickness of part
Mechanical properties---increase tensile strength &
hardness
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Scientists now able to apply constant
current electricity to their experiments
In 1805, Italian chemist Luigi Brugnatelli,
successfully electroplated silver medals
with gold
Brugnatelli's inventions were kept secret
by the French Academy of Sciences and Wikienergia.com
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Objectives of electroplating:
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PVD Coating (Physical Vapor Deposition)
CVD Coating (Chemical Vapor Deposition)
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PVD PROCESS
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PVD PROCESS
contd
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H2 = 50 psi PVD Chamber
N2 = 15 psi
Substrate
Ni film
Heater
Suction valve
N2
(or) Ni Source
2000oC
H2
To vacuum pump
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Steps involved in a conventional PVD Process
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Some examples
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Sputter Deposition
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Plasma Production
light
Power Gas flow
PLASMA
gas
(ng) excited atoms
and molecules
Electrons
ions
Wall Wall
radicals,
molecular fragments
reaction
secondary
products electrons
substrate
14
pumping pumping
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PVD Sputtering tool
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Description of sputtering process
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Bounce back :
when very low energy (<5eV); when the
collision is head-on or nearly so
Embedded :
when much higher energy (>10KeV), the
impinging particles are most likely to be
embedded in the target, which is the basis
of Ion Implantation
If energy level is between the two
extremes:
some fraction of the energy of the
impinging ions is transferred to the solid
in the form of heat, and lattice damage
another fraction of such energy causes
atoms from the surface to be dislodged
and ejected into the gas phase----
Sputtering
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Uniform thickness over large area.
Simple thickness control.
The alloy composition maintains stoichiometry with
the original target composition.
Deposition rates do not differ a great deal from one
material to another.
Sputtering-cleaning prior to initiating film deposition.
The surface is not again exposed to ambient after
such cleaning.
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Metals: Al, Cu, Zn, Au, Ni, Cr, W, Mo, Ti Alloys Ag-
Cu, Pb-Sn, Al-Zn, Ni-Cr
Nonmetals: graphite, MoS2, WS2, PTFE
Refractory oxides: Al2O3, Cr2O3, Al2O3-Cr2O3, SiO2,
ZrO2-Y2O3
Refractory carbides: TiC, ZrC, HfC, NbC, Tic-Ni, Tic-
ZrC
Refactory nitrides: TiN, Ti2N, ZrN, HfN, TiN-ZrN,
TiN-AlN-ZrN
Refractory borides: TiB2, ZrB2, HfB2, CrB2, MoB2
Refactory silicides: MoSi2, WSi2, Cr3Si2
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Add reactive gas to chamber during deposition (evaporation or
sputtering)
oxygen, nitrogen
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Classifications of thin-films based on their applications
Thin-film property Typical applications
category
Optical Reflective/antireflective coatings
Interference filters, Decoration (colour,
luster), Memory discs (CDs),
Waveguides
Electrical Insulation, conduction, Semiconductor
devices, Piezoelectric drivers
Magnetic Memory discs/devices
Chemical Barriers to diffusion or alloying
Protecting against corrosion or
oxidation
Gas/liquid sensors
Mechanical Tribological (wear resistant) coatings
Hardness, Adhesion, Micromechanics
Thermal Barrier layers, Heat sinks
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CVD process
CVD involves the formation of a solid film on a surface of a
heated substrate by means of a chemical reaction in a gas or in
the vapor phase.
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Typical precursor materials
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Precursor to Tantalum Nitride (TaN)
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ADVANTAGES
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Best wishes
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