Piezoelectric effect

Piezoelectric effect discovered by Curie brothers in 1880 is a

phenomenon , by which certain crystals when stressed,
become electrically polarised and thereby develop an electric
voltage between opposite surfaces
In early 1950's, piezoelectric crystals were made from quartz
A single crystal of Quartz (SiO2)is anisotropic in its mechanical,
electric & optical properties (polar axes X,Y & Z)
A plate cut at right angles to X-axis (X-cut crystal) when
subjected to pressure changes its thickness slightly and as a
result the plate becomes electrically polarised
The electrical information is electronically processed &
displayed on Cathode ray Tube (CRT) of an Ultrasonic flaw
detector.

1
 Reversible Piezoelectric effect
The piezoelectric phenomenon is
reversible in the sense when electric
voltage is applied across the crystal
faces, a strain is generated in the
crystal
The negative ions are attracted to
positive side and positive ions to
negative conductor Basis for ultrasonic
testing
The plate becomes thinner and
longer when voltage is applied Conversion of electrical
pulses to mechanical
The plate becomes thicker and vibrations
shorter when voltage is removed as Conversion of returned
the positive & negative ions repulse mechanical vibrations
each back into electrical energy
The plate vibrates until equilibrium is A transducer is a device
achieved. that converts one form of
energy to another
This alignment of molecules, that Mechanical energy to
cause the material to change electric energy & vice
dimensions, known as electrostriction versa

2
 Piezo-electric Transducers
Piezo-electric ceramics were introduced, they soon became
the dominant material for transducers due to
good piezoelectric properties
ease of manufacture into a variety of shapes and
sizes
Operating capability at low voltage and usability up to
300C
The first piezo-ceramic in general use was barium titanate
(BaTiO3) & lead zirconate titanate (PZT) compositions
Piezoelectric ceramics transducer materials are
electrostrictive and are made piezoelectric artificially
The crystal material is heated above its Curie point
a bias DC voltage of 1000V/mm of plate thickness applied
and maintained as the material is cooled to permanently make
them a polarised material

3
 Properties of Crystal materials
QUARTZ
Properties largely depend on the direction in which crystal
plates were cut to make active transducer element
High Electrical & Thermal stability
High mechanical strength
Insoluble in most liquids
High Wear resistance
Excellent resistance to aging
suffers mode conversion to a smaller degree
Low electro-mechanical conversion , resulting in low loop-
gain

4
 Piezoelectric ceramic transducers:
BatiO3, & PZT
have greater mechanical to electrical conversion
sensitivity
have lower mechanical to electrical conversion,
than that of Quartz
But loop gain ( total sensitivity of a transducer
used as both transmitter & receiver) is superior
Are more Noisy
Suffer mode conversion-contain certain surface
waves when crystal is stressed

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 Lithium sulfate
Ease of obtaining optimum damping- for best
resolution
Optimum receiving characteristics

Intermediate electro-mechanical conversion efficiency

a fragile crystal

Service temperature is limited to 75 C

suffers the least from mode conversion

Affected by humidity

Lead metaniobate
Low mechanical damping

Good service temperature

High die-electric constant resulting the crystal

element with a high electrical capacitance

6
 Description quartz LiSo4 BaTiO3 PZT
Curie temperature
(C) 575 75 120 340

Transmission
constant 2 16 140 320

Receiving constant
50 175 15 24

Coupling coefficient
11 38 45 68
(%)
Acoustic impedance
(Z) 15.2 11.2 24 28.4
10.kg/m

Die-electric contant
(E) 4.5 10 1050 1500

7
Transducer Characteristics
Factors that influence the
performance of a
transducer
Crystal material
Centre frequency (Size)
surface area
Bandwidth
(Mechanical damping)
connector type
Constructing Transducers
to have identical
performance
characteristics are difficult

8
 Transducer construction
The crystal may has a
backing/Damping material for
support.
If the acoustic impedance of
damping material is more or less
equal to that of the active element
, the most effective damping is
produced.
A transducer with, average to low
impedance mismatch, allows
sound to pass easily from the
crystal element to backing material
produces medium or low damping

9
 Transducer Construction
The thickness of the active element
determined by desired frequency of the
transducer.
Crystals cut to a thickness that equals
() one half of , radiated wavelength.
Wear plate
Attached with material thickness of to the
active element (ceramic, Al oxide)
protects the matching layer and active element
from scratching.
has an acoustical impedance closer between
the active element and steel
The higher the frequency of the transducer, the
thinner the active element.
high frequency contact transducers are not
produced
because the element is very thin and too fragile

Immersion transducers have a matching layer

with an acoustical impedance between the
active element and water

10
 Electrical Damping
The piezo-electric transducer is a
mechanical resonator
Acts as a capacitor when connected in
electrical circuit
If an inductor added to the circuit the two
make up an electrical resonator
Now we have two resonance circuits
coupled by piezoelectric effect
If the inductor is adjusted so that the
electrical circuit resonates at the same
frequency as the mechanical resonator
efficient energy conversion takes place
By adding some resistance to the electrical
part of the circuit
The ringing of the transducer is controlled
Like mechanical damping, electrical
damping lowers
The pulse energy & receiving sensitivity
while increasing resolution

11
 Sensitivity & Resolution
Sensitivity & Resolution are interrelated as Q=fc/(f2-f1)
Q=Quality factor
fc=Centre frequency
f2=frequency above fc at which amplitude falls to 70 % of fc
f1=frequency below fc at which amplitude falls to 70 % of fc
(f2-f1) = bandwidth (f) of transducer
bandwidth (f) if to be expressed in % f =(f2-f1) / fc x 100
Q factor 1 has greater band-width i.e (f >100%)
provides a transducer with high resolving power & wide
frequency range response.
Q factor 1 provides lesser bandwidth (f <100%)
provides a transducer sensitivity and greater penetration
but has poorer resolving power & narrow frequency range
response.

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 Frequency & Band-width
The frequency noted on a transducer
is the centre frequency and depends primarily on
the backing material.

Transducers are specially fabricated

Some as efficient transmitters and

others as efficient receivers.

Sensitivity
ability to detect a small reflector and is
proportional to
product of efficiency of the transducer as a
transmitter and a receiver
Frequency & Band-width
Resolution
Ability to locate defects near the surface or in close proximity
in the material

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14
 Narrow band Broad band
Construction Suitable selection of crystal Suitable selection of crystal

Lower damping Higher damping

Decrease of electrical damping in increase of electrical damping in the

the circuit circuit

Characteristics High pulse strength Medium/low pulse strength

Lower bandwidth <100% Larger bandwidth > 100%

Small changes in frequency Large changes in frequency

Sensitivity high (low gain setting) Relatively requires high gain setting

Dead zone more & wider pulse Good near & lateral resolution
resulting poor near resolution &
lateral resolution

Reproducible echo amplitude Reduction of echo amplitude as a

evaluation function of distance ( not suited for
DGS application)

Increased noise with coarse grain Better signal to noise and penetration
materials in coarse grain materials

15
 LESS DAMPED TRANSDUCERS
easier to initiate vibrations
will exhibit a narrower frequency range
Requires low gain to display signals
Have high sensitivity to signals within frequency range
HIGHLY DAMPED TRANSDUCERS
a highly damped transducer
Difficult to initiate vibrations
will respond to frequencies above and below the central
frequency
Sensitive to small details
No distortion of echo shape

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 CARE OF TRANSDUCER
Transducers withstand some abuse & should be handled carefully.
Dropping , fixing the probe too firmly , too much load on coupling
surface can
cause damage to wear plate, element, or the backing material

Change in beam path & reduction in sensitivity

Damage to a transducer is often noted on the A-scan

presentation as an enlargement of the initial pulse.
High temperatures, couplant entering into probe
Loosens the crystal from protective layer

Natural wear
In Contact testing with St beam, angle beam & TR probes

change in beam index & beam angle, increase in cross-talk in

TR probes
Extremely high voltages
Break-down of di-electric field resulting in destruction of crystal

Digital thickness probes working normally at low voltages

affected or damaged

17
 SOUND FIELDS
NEAR FIELD/FRESNEL FIELD
Ultrasound originates from a number
of points along the transducer face
intensity along the beam is affected by
constructive and destructive wave
interference referred to as diffraction
effects.
wave interference leads to fluctuations
in the sound intensity for a certain
distance from the exit point of
transducer known as the near field N,
where N=D/4 .

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 NEAR FIELD
Back-wall Echo amplitude
remains fairly constant
Total energy reflected back to
crystal
due to converging or parallel
beam
Echo amplitude of Small
reflectors (FBH)
Decreases with
decreasing distance
Flaw evaluation in near field
Artificial reflectors positioned
in near zone in a calibration
block
Not suitable for flaw sizing
Maximum echo amplitude for
any reflector occurs at the end
of near field

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 Near-Field and Far-Field Effects
The face of an ultrasonic-transducer crystal does not vibrate uniformly under the
influence of an impressed electrical voltage.
Can be easily described as a mosaic of tiny, individual crystals, each vibrating in the
same direction but slightly out of phase with its neighbors.
Each element in the mosaic acts like a point source and radiates a spherical wave
outward from the plane of the crystal face.
Near the face of the crystal, the composite sound beam propagates chiefly as a
plane wave,although spherical waves emanating from the periphery of the crystal
face produce short-range ultrasonic beams referred to as side lobes.
Because of interference effects, as these spherical waves encounter one another in
the region near the crystal face, a spatial pattern of acoustic pressure maximums
and minimums is set up in the composite sound beam.
The region in which these maximums and minimums occur is known as the near
field (Fresnel field) of the sound beam.
Along the central axis of the composite sound beam, the series of acoustic pressure
maximums and minimums becomes broader and more widely spaced as the
distance from the crystal face, d, increases. Where d becomes equal to N length of
the near field, the acoustic pressure reaches a final maximum
The length of the near field is determined by the size of the radiating crystal and the
wave-length, , of the ultrasonic wave. For a circular radiator of diameter D, the length
of thenear field can be calculated from:

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 FAR FIELD / FRAUNHOFER
FIELD
Difficult to accurately evaluate flaws in
materials when positioned within near
field
A relatively uniform front at the end of
the near field formed is-far field.
Transition between the near field and
the far field - focal area of a flat or
unfocused transducer.
Beam spreads out in far field
in a pattern originating from the centre of
the transducer.

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 FAR FIELD
Back-wall Echo amplitude
Changes inversely with
distance
Some portion of reflected
wider beam does not
reach crystal
For Small reflectors
equivalent to FBH
echo amplitude
decreases with a
stronger decay compared
to back wall echoes
DAC or DGS curves
required to perform
examination
Flaw sizing - attempted in
far field only

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 BEAM SPREAD or BEAM
DIVERGENCE
Maximum sound pressure occurs along
the acoustic axis (centreline) of the
transducer, causing maximum
reflection.
Beam spread occurs because the
vibrating particle of the material do not
always transfer all of their energy in the
direction of wave propagation.
If the particles are not directly aligned in
the direction of wave propagation, some
of the energy will get transferred off at
an angle, like one ball hits another ball
slightly off centre

23
 BEAM SPREAD / BEAM DIVERGENCE
Beam Divergence determined by : Sin /2= 1.22 /D
where =V/F
/2 = Angle of divergence
V = Sound velocity in the material.
D = diameter of the transducer.
F = Frequency of the transducer. (cycles/second)
Beam spread is greater when using a low frequency transducer than
when using a high frequency transducer.
As the diameter of the transducer increases, the beam spread will be
reduced.

24
 Display Modes
A-scan format provides a quantitative display of signal amplitudes
and time-of-flight data obtained at a single point on the surface of
the test-piece. Used to analyze the type, size, and location (depth)
of flaws
B-scan format provides a quantitative display of time-of-flight data
obtained along a line of the testpiece and shows the relative depth
of reflectors. Used mainly to determine length in one direction,
depth position and to a certain degree the shape and orientation
of large flaws
C-scan format provides a semi-quantitative display of signal
amplitudes obtained over an area of the test-piece surface. Used
to map out the position of flaws on a plan view of the test-piece.
A-scan and B-scan data are usually presented on an oscilloscope
screen;
C-scan data are recorded by an x-y plotter or displayed on a
computer monitor, With computerized data acquisition and image
processing, the display formats can be combined or processed
into more complex displays.

25
 A-scan display
Plot of Signal amplitude versus time
horizontal baseline on an
oscilloscope screen indicates
elapsed time the vertical
deflections/ signals represent
echoes (Fig).
Flaw location depth is determined
from the position of the flaw echo on
the calibrated time base (the
horizontal sweep of the
oscilloscope)
The zero point on this scale
represents the entry surface of the
testpiece
the discontinuity signal also must be
corrected for distance losses.
Flaw size can be estimated by
comparing the amplitude of a
discontinuity signal with that of a
signal from a discontinuity of known
size and shape

26
 B-scan display
a plot of time versus distance, in
which one orthogonal axis on the
display corresponds to elapsed
time, while the other axis
represents the position of the
transducer along a line on the
surface of the testpiece relative to
the position of the transducer at
the start of the inspection.
Echo intensity is indicated by the
relative brightness of echo
indications on an oscilloscope
screen.
front and back surfaces are shown
in profile.
Indications from reflecting
interfaces within the testpiece are
also shown in profile, and the
position, orientation, and depth of
such interfaces along the
imaginary cutting plane are
revealed.

27
 C-scan display
records echoes from the internal portions of testpieces as a function of the
position of each reflecting interface within an area.
Flaws are superimposed on a plan view of the testpiece, and both flaw size
(flaw area) and position within the plan view are recorded.
The probe is moved over the surface of the test-piece as a series of closely
spaced parallel lines, a fine rastor pattern
Mechanical linkage connects the probe to x-axis and y-axis position
indicators, which in turn feed position data to the x-y plotter or facsimile
device. Some produce a shaded-line scan with echo intensity recorded as a
variation in line shading, while others indicate flaws by an absence of
shading so that each flaw shows up as a blank space on the display

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 RF display
The RF display is representative of
the actual ultrasonic stress pulses
received.
In this mode, the first oscillation at 17
s shows the nature of the pulse
(compression or rarefaction) when
received.
The inversion of the shape of the
pulse at 19,21, microseconds due to
phase inversion caused by reflection
from a "free" houndary.
This phase reversal can be used to
discriminate between "hard"
boundaries (high impedance) and
"soft" boundaries (low impedance
such as air).
The reject control, on the other hand,
tends to discriminate against low-level
signals, through use of a threshold,
below which no information is made
available to the operator.

29
 CONTACT TRANSDUCERS
Used for direct contact inspections by hand
manipulation.
Have elements protected in a rugged casing
easy to grip
withstand sliding contact and move along a
surface with a variety of materials
Have replaceable wear plates to lengthen
their useful life
Chosen either to enhance the sensitivity or
resolution of the system,
Have desired frequency, bandwidth, and
focusing to optimize inspection capability
Coupling materials: water, grease, oils
to remove the air gap between the transducer
and the component being inspected.

30
 DELAY LINE TRANSDUCERS
introduces a time delay between the generation of the sound wave and
arrival of any reflected waves.
allows the transducer to complete its "sending" function before it starts its
"listening" function
Primary function
To improve near surface resolution

Types
Removable delay line;surface conforming membrane &protective wear cap
options
high precision thickness gauging of thin materials
delamination checks in composite materials.
useful in high-temperature measurement applications
delay line provides some insulation to the piezoelectric element from
the heat.

31
 DUAL ELEMENT TRANSDUCERS
contain two independently operated
elements in a single housing
angled towards each other to create a
crossed-beam sound path in tesst
material.
One of the elements transmits and the
other receives the ultrasonic signal.
Active elements chosen for their
sending and receiving capabilities
to provide a transducer with a cleaner
signal
inspection of course grained material.
well suited for
Thickness measurements of thin
materials
Inspection for near surface defects
The two elements are

32
 PAINT BRUSH TRANSDUCERS
used to scan wide areas more rapidly
for gross discontinuities
long and narrow transducers are
made up of an array of small crystals
that are carefully matched
minimize variations in performance
and maintain uniform sensitivity over
the entire area of the transducer.
Smaller and more sensitive
transducers required to further define
the details of a discontinuity.
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 NORMAL INCIDENCE SHEAR WAVE
TRANSDUCERS
introduction of shear waves directly
into a test piece without the use of an
angle beam wedge.
Careful design has enabled
manufacturing of transducers with
minimal longitudinal wave
contamination.
The ratio of the longitudinal to shear
wave components is generally below -
30dB.

34
 ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCERS
Built-in or replaceable wedges
introduce a refracted shear wave into
the test material.
fixed angle transducers
angle of refraction that is marked on
the transducer
accurate for a particular material,
usually steel.
Also used to generate surface waves
Universal angle beam Probes
adjustable versions
user determines the angles of
incidence and refraction

35
 SURFACE-WAVE TRANSDUCER
Shear wave 90 angle-beam probe produces surface
wave
Used for detection of surface & sub-surface
discontinuities
Follows the contour of the part, provided the contours
are large compared to wavelength of sound wave
Penetrate the part to a depth of one
Surfaces of part to be free of oil, dirt & excess couplant
as these will cause reflection or damping of surface
waves
Applications include
inspection of surfaces for fatigue, grinding or heat treat
cracks, detection of deep tool marks & stress raisers not
visible to naked eye

36
 IMMERSION TRANSDUCERS
Transducers do not contact the
component,
designed to operate in a liquid
environment and all connections
are watertight.
have an impedance matching
layer to get more sound energy
into the water and into the
component being inspected.
Immersion transducers available
Flat or planer
cylindrically focused or
spherically focused lens

37
FOCUS TYPES

38
Immersion Techniques-OFF-SET
method examination of pipes

39
 FOCUSED TRANSDUCERS
Combination of probe and an
acoustic lens Bonded to transducer
face
Can be either immersion or contact
Described by their focal length in
water
concentrates sound energy to a
smaller area.
increases beam intensity in the
zone between lens & focal point in
material or part
improves sensitivity and axial
resolution
typically used inside a water tank or
as part of a squirter or bubbler
system in scanning applications.

40
 Focused Transducers
Acoustic lens materials are
shaped either cylindrical (line
focus) or spherical (spot focus)
Spherical transducers exhibit
greatest sensitivity & resolution
But area covered & depth range
are small
Usual ranges are 0.25 mm to
250 mm below the front surface
of the transducer in materials
Part submerged in a bath of
water
A submerged probe scanned
across it in a raster scan pattern
using pulse echo or through
transmission techniques

41
 ACOUSTIC LENSES
Straight (flat) crystals with a
focusing lens attached
causes sound waves to
refract to a focal point.
referred to as Acoustic
Lenses
Formula for calculating focal
length
n = ratio of velocity
between lens material
and liquid velocity.
V1-lens material
V2 Water

42
 Advantages of focused transducers
High sensitivity to small flaws
High resolving power
Low effects of surface roughness
Low effects of surface contour
Low metal noise
Acoustic lens materials are Polysterene
Epoxy resin
Aluminum
Magnesium

43
 Focusing of sound beam
Flat surfaces associated with
test parts tend to foreshorten
the focal length
due to refraction of the
wave-fronts entering higher
velocity metallic parts.
The focal distance is reduced
in length equivalent to one-
fourth of what it would have
been in the water without the
presence of the metallic test
part.

44
 FOCUSSING TECHNIQUES

45
 SQUIRTER SYSTEM: PULSE ECHO
Probe mounted in a nozzle assembly.
Water is fed to the nozzle through plastic pipes
Inside the nozzle the water passes by the front face of the probe then
passes out of the nozzle through a small diameter hole to produce a jet
of water
with inlet & outlet flow of water, water column permanently
maintained underneath the probe
probe adjusted to maintain distance to part
Sound beam projected through a nozzle onto the part
Used for High speed scanning of Plate, sheet, strip, cylindrical forms
& regularly shaped parts

46
 SQUIRTER -THROUGH TRANSMISSION
pairs of probes kept in alignment and usually
achieved by mounting them on a moveable gantry.
The component is mounted rigidly while the pair of
probes on the gantry performs the scanning action.
Alternatively, the probes may be fixed and the
component passed between the probes.

47
 BUBBLER SYSTEM
Modification of squinter
Low water pressure single probe systems used
Component rests on the top of the probe nozzle
assembly
water provides a couplant cushion
components manually passed over the probe assembly

48
 WHEEL TRANSDUCER-PULSE ECHO
Transducer mounted inside a water filled tyre
Mounted on the axle & held in a fixed position
while the tire rotates
The wheel run across surfaces of parts or held
stationary while the part moves past the wheel
Applications
Inspection of plate for laminations
Billets for primary & secondary pipe
Angle beam (45) inspection

49
 WHEEL TRANSDUCER-
THROUGH TRANSMISSION
probes mounted inside 150 mm
300 mm hollow rubber wheels
Wheels filled with glycol as a
coupling medium
pair of wheels are held in
alignment by a calliper type gantry
manipulated up and down as the
gantry is also incremented along
the length of the part
Sound-beam travels through the
liquid glycol-rubber tire-part-tyre of
second wheel-glycol-and finally to
receiving probe
no depth information provided on
any flaws found

50
Magnetostrictive transducers

Magnetostrictive materials (Nickel) change in length

under the influence of a magnetic field
Nickel rod placed in a coil carrying current
Magnetostrictive materials , a stack of plates,
produce ultrasonic beam at right angles to plate
Frequency depends upon plate thickness
Useful for low ultrasonic frequencies < 0.2 MHz
Not used in inspection of metals
Useful in Lamb-wave testing of wires

51
 EMA TRANSDUCERS
Generate ultrasonic waves directly into the
surface of an electrically conductive
specimen
No need for an externally vibrating
transducer and couplant , non-contact
transducer
Useful on high temperature, rough and
moving specimens

52
 PRINCIPLE OF EMA TRANSDUCERS
A permanent or electromagnet produces
magnetic field
A flat coil of wire carries an RF current
An eddy current is induced on the surface of
material
This eddy current interacts with magnetic-
field to produce Lorentz forces
The Lorentz forces cause the specimen
surface to vibrate in sympathy with applied
RF

53
 PRINCIPLE OF EMA TRANSDUCERS
The reflected sound vibrations from discontinuities
(or moving conductor in a magnetic field) generate
a current in the coil
The distance (clearance) between the transducer
and the metal surface affects the strength of
magnetic field and the strength of eddy currents
generated
Ultrasonic intensity falls-off rapidly with increasing
gap
A 2 MHz transducer requires 1.0 to 1.5 mm
consistent gap

54