FLUID MECHANICS

MEE 1004

Dr. Aabid Hussain Shaik

Email: aabidhussain.s@vit.ac.in
Contact: 9434346497
 Course Content
FLUID MECHANICS (MEE 1004)
Module Topic LHrs
Introduction to Fluid Statics:
Definition of fluid - Classification of fluids Newtonian fluid
Characteristic properties of fluids Non -Newtonian Fluids and their
1 4
classification. Concept of Continuum, Fluid Properties Fluid statics:
Pascals law and Hydrostatic law of equilibrium; Pressure and its
measurement: Manometers and Pressure gauges.

Hydrostatic forces and Buoyancy:

Hydrostatic forces on plane Inclined and Curved Surfaces
2 Buoyancy Condition of equilibrium for submerged and Floating 4
Bodies Centre of Buoyancy Metacentre Determination of
metacentric height.
 Course Content
FLUID MECHANICS (MEE 1004)
Mod
ule Topic LHr

Fluid Dynamics:
3 5
Types of flows, Control Volume, Reynolds Transport Theorem, Continuity, Euler
and Bernoullis momentum equation Navier Stokes Equations Applications.

4
Fluid through pipes:
Measurement in Pipe Flow Major and Minor Losses Multi reservoir problems
pipe network design Moodys diagram Hagen Poiseullie equation Turbulent 4
flow

5
Open Channel Flow:
Types of open channel flows specific energy specific force critical flow 5
hydraulic jumps/surges and gradually varying flow concepts Measurement of
 Course Content
FLUID MECHANICS (MEE 1004)
Modul
e Topic L Hrs
Dimensional Analysis:
Dimensional homogeneity Raleigh and Buckingham Theorems
6 Non dimensional numbers Model laws and distorted models 4
Modelling and similitude

Boundary Layers:
Boundary layers laminar and Turbulent Flow Boundary
layer thickness momentum Integral Equation Drag and 4
7
lift separation of boundary later methods of separation of
boundary layer

TOTAL 46
 Text and Reference Books

Text Books:
 Course Assessment
FLUID MECHANICS (MEE 1004)
S.NO Assessment Marks
1 DA 1 10
2 DA 2 10
3 Quiz 10
4 CAT - 1 50
5 CAT - 2 50
6 Final Assessment Test 100
 Module-1
Introduction to Fluid
Statics

Definition of fluid - Classification of fluids;

Fluid Properties; Pascals law;
Hydrostatic law of equilibrium;
Pressure and its measurement.

7
 Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics describes the science of fluid flow
also called fluid dynamics.

Majority of chemical-processing operations are conducted

either partially or totally in the fluid phase.

Industries- Biochemical, chemical, energy, fermentation,

materials, mining, petroleum, pharmaceuticals,
polymer, and waste-processing.
 Fluid statics: Fluid is at rest
Fluid mechanics
Fluid dynamics: Fluid is moving

A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms

continuously when acted on by a shearing stress
of any magnitude.

Fluid mechanics is a division in applied mechanics related to the

behaviour of liquid or gas which is either in rest or in motion.

The study related to a fluid in rest or stationary is referred to fluid static,

otherwise it is referred to as fluid dynamic.
Properties of Fluids:

Density or Mass Density:

Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of fluid to its
volume. Thus mass per unit volume of a fluid is called density. It is denoted as
.
= Mass of fluid/Volume of fluid

Specific weight or Weight Density:

Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio between the weight of a
fluid to its volume. Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid is called weight density
and is denoted by the symbol w.
It is the ratio of weight of fluid to its volume.
It is denoted as w.
w = Weight of fluid/Volume of fluid = x g
Specific volume:
It is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by unit mass of fluid.
Sp.Volume = Volume of fluid/ mass of fluid
= 1/(mass of fluid/Volume of fluid)
= 1/
Specific gravity:
It is defined as the ratio of the weight density of the fluid to weight
density of a standard fluid. It is denoted as s.
s (liquids) = density of liquid/ density of water
s (gases) = density of gas/ density of air
 When two layers of a fluid, a distance 'dy" apart, move one over the other at
different velocities. say u and u + du.

The viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between
the fluid layer.

The top layer causes a shear stress on

the adjacent lower layer while the lower
layer causes a shear stress on the
adjacent top layer.

This shear stress is proportional to the rate of

change of velocity with respect to y. It is denoted Newtons equation of viscosity

by symbol called Tau ( ) du

Mathematically.
dy
Viscosity:
It is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance
to the movement of one layer of the fluid to another adjacent
layer.
= (du/dy)
is coefficient of dynamic viscosity (or) apparent viscosity
= / (du/dy)
Viscosity is defined as the shear stress required to produce unit
rate of shear strain.
du/dy= rate of shear strain (or)
rate of shear deformation (or)
velocity gradient
Newtons equation of viscosity

du
Shear stress due to viscosity at a point:
dy

- kinematic
- viscosity (coeff. of viscosity)
viscosity

fluid surface

y
u( y) (velocity profile)
 Non-Newtonian and Newtonian fluids

Non-Newtonian fluid
Newtonian fluid (linear relationship)
(due to vis cos ity)

Non-Newtonian fluid
(non-linear relationship)

du / dy

Non-Newtonian fluids: blood, paints, toothpaste

Variation of Viscosity with Temperature:
Viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in temperature and for gases viscosity
increases with increase in temperature
This is due to the reason that viscous forces in liquid is due to cohesive forces and
molecular momentum transfer.
In liquids, cohesive forces predominates the molecular momentum transfer due to
closely packed molecules and with increase in temperature, cohesive forces
decrease resulting in decrease in viscosity.
But in gases cohesive forces are smaller and molecular momentum transfer
predominates. With increase in temperature molecular momentum transfer increases
hence viscosity increases.

For Gases:
Types of fluids:

Fluids may be classified into

following five types:
I. Ideal fluid,
2. Real fluid,
3. Newtonian fluid,
4. Non-Newtonian fluid,
5. Ideal plastic fluid.
 Ideal Fluid: A fluid, which is incompressible and is having no viscosity, is
known as an ideal fluid. Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids,
which exist, have some viscosity.

Real Fluid: A fluid, which possesses viscosity. is known as real fluid. All the
fluids in actual practice are real fluids.

Newtonian Fluid: A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly.

proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is known as a
Newtonian fluid.

Non- Newtonian Fluid. A real fluid. in which shear stress is not proportional
to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), known as a Non-Newtonian
fluid.

Ideal Plastic Fluid: A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the yield value
and shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain (or veloclIy
gradient) is known as ideal plastic fluid.
 The relationships between the shear stress and shear rate in a real fluid are part of the science of
rheology.
The curves are plots of shear stress vs. rate of shear and apply at constant temperature and
pressure.
The simplest behavior is that shown by curve A, which is a straight line passing through the origin.
Fluids following this simple linearity are called newtonian fluids. Gases and most liquids are
newtonian.
The other curves represent the rheological behavior of liquids called non-newtonian. Some liquids,
e.g., sewage sludge, do not flow at all until a threshold shear stress, denoted by To, is attained and
then flow linearly at shear stresses greater than TO Curve B is an example of this relation. Liquids
acting this way are called Bingham
plastics.
Line C represents a pseudoplastic fluid. The curve passes through the origin, is concave downward at
low shears, and becomes nearly linear at high shears. Rubber latex is an example of such a fluid.
Curve D represents a dilatant fluid. The curve is concave upward at low shears and almost linear at
high shears.
Quicksand and some sand-filled emulsions show this behavior.
Pseudo-plastics are said to be shear rate thinning and dilatant fluids shear rate thickening.
 Classification of fluids

Type of Fluid Density Viscosity

Ideal Fluid Constant zero

Incompressible fluid Constant non-zero
Inviscid Constant or variable Zero
Real Fluid Variable Non-zero

du
Newtonian Constant or variable
dy
Non-Newtonian Constant or variable du

dy
Compressible fluids Variable Zero

Perfect gas P=RT Zero

 Surface Tension
It is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of the
liquid with gas or on the surface between two immiscible
liquids such that the contact surface behaves like a
membrane under tension.
The magnitude of this force per unit length of the free
surface will have same value as the surface energy per unit
area.
It is denoted by Greek letter called sigma with units as N/m.

Consider three molecules A, B and C of a liquid in a mass of liquid. The molecule A is attracted
in all directions equally by the surrounding molecules of the liquid.
Thus the resultant force acting on the molecule A is zero. But the molecule B which is situated
near the free surface. is acted upon by upward and downward 'forces which are unbalanced.
Thus a net resultant force on molecule B is acting in the downward direction.
The molecule C situated on the free surface of liquid, experience a resultant downward force.
All the molecules on the free surface experience a downward force. Thus the free surface on
the liquid acts like a very thin film under the tension of the surface of the liquid acts as an
elastic surface
 Surface tension for liquid droplet
Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of radius 'r'. On the entire surface of
the droplet, the tensile force due to surface tension will be acting.

Let
= surface tension of the liquid
P = pressure intensity inside the droplet (in excess
of the outside pressure intensity)
d = Dia of droplet.

let the droplet is cut into two halves. The forces acting on one
half (say left. half) will be
(I) tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference of the cut
portion (sigma *circumference)

(ij) pressure force on the area (pressure * area)

These two forces will be equal and opposite under equilibrium conditions
Surface tension on a hollow bubble
A hallow bubble like a soap bubble in air has two surfaces in contact with air, one inside and
other outside. Thus two surfaces are subjected surface tension.

Surface tension on liquid jet:

Consider a liquid jet of diameter 'd' and length 'L
Let p = Pressure intensity inside the liquid jet above the outside pressure
sigma = Surface tension of the liquid.
Consider the equilibrium of the semi jet, we have
Force due to pressure = p x area of semi jet (P*d*L)
Force due to surface tension = Sigma*2L
 Capillarity
It is defined as the phenomenon of rise of fall of a liquid
surface in a small tube relative to the adjacent general level
of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid.

The raise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise while

the fall of liquid surface is known as capillary depression. It
is expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquid.

Its value depends upon the specific weight of the liquid,

diameter of the tube and surface tension of the liquid.

Consider a glass tube of small diameter d open at both the ends and is inserted in a liquid.
The liquid will raise in the tube above the level of the liquid.
Let h be the height of the liquid in the tube.
Under the state of equilibrium the weight of the liquid of height h is balanced by the force at
the surface of the liquid in the tube.
But the force at the surface of the liquid in the tube is due to surface tension.
Sigma= surface tension of the liquid
Theta= angle of contact between liquid and glass tube

The weigh of the liquid of height h in the tube = area of tube* h*density * g
Vertical component of the surface tensile force = sigma* circumference * cos (theta)

At equilibrium:

The value of theta between water and clean glass tube is approximately equal to zero and
hence cos (theta) is equal to unity. Then rise of water is given by
Expression for Capillary fall:
If the glass lube is dipped in mercury, the revel of mercury in the tube will be lower than the
general level of the outside liquid.

Let h= Height of depression in tube.

Then in equilibrium. two forces are acting on the mercury inside the tube. First one is due to
surface tension acting in the downward direction.

Second force is due to hydrostatic force acting upward and is equal to intensity of pressure al
a depth

Value of theta for mercury and glass tube is 128

A plate 0.025 distance from a fixed plate moves at 60 cmls and requires a
force 2 N per area to maintain this speed. Determine the viscosity between
the plates

Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 981 kg/m3. The shear stress
at a point in oil is 0.2452 N/m2 and velocity gradient at that point is 0.2 per
second.

Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40 mm diameter when the inside
pressure is 2.5 N/m2 above atmospheric pressure.

Calculate the capillary raise in a glass tube of 2.5 mm dia when immersed
Vertically in (a)'water (b) mercury. Take surface tension as 0.0725 N/m for wafer
and 0.52 N/m for mercury in contact with air. The specific gravity of mercury is
given as s 13.6 and angle of contact as 130.
Pascals law:

It states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at

a point in a static fluid is equal in all directions.

The fluid element is of very small dimensions i.e ..

dx, dy and ds.

Consider an arbitrary fluid element of wedge shape in a fluid mass at rest. Let the width
of the element perpendicular to the plane of paper is unity and Px, Py and Pz are the
pressures or intensity of pressure acting on the face AB, AC and BC respectively. Let LABC
= .

Then the forces acting on the element are:

1. Pressure forces normal to the surfaces.

2. Weight of element in the vertical direction
The forces on the faces are:

Force on the face AB = P x Area of face AB = Px* dy*1

Similarly force on the face AC = Py* dx * 1
Force on the face BC = Pz *ds * 1
Weight of element = (Mass of element) x g = volume * *g
= (AB*AC*1/2)* *g
Resolving the forces in X direction Resolving the forces in Y direction
Px * dy* 1 Pz (ds *1) sin(90) = 0
Py*dx*1 Pz*ds*1*cos(90) (dx*dy)/2 * * g = 0
Px * dy* 1 Pz *(ds * 1) cos =0
Py*dx Pz*ds*1* sin (dx*dy)/2 * * g = 0
ds * cos = AB = dy
But ds*sin = dx also the element is very
Px * dy* 1 - Pz * dy* 1 = 0 small and hence weight is negligible

= Px = Pz Py * dx Pz * dx = 0 = Py = Pz
Px = Py = Pz

The above equation shows that the pressure at any point in x, y and z directions is equal.
Since the choice of fluid element was completely arbitrary, which means the pressure at any
point is the same in all directions .
 Problems
1. A Bingham fluid of viscosity 10 Pa.s and yield stress 10 kPa, is sheared between flat
parallel plates separated by a distance 0.001 m. The top plate is moving with a velocity of
1 m/s. What will be the shear stress acting on the plate. Ans: 20 kPa

2. If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by u = (2/3)y y2

Determine the stress at y =0 and 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.63 poise

Ans: 0.5756 and 0.3167 NS/m2

3. A plate 0.025 mm distant from a fixed plate moves at 60 cm/s and requires a force of 2N
per unit area to maintain this speed. Determine the fluid viscosity between the plates.

Ans: 8.33 x 10-5 NS/m2

4. The space between two square flat parallel plates is filled with oil. Each side of the plate is
60 cm. The thickness of the oil film is 12.5 mm. The upper plate, which moves at 2.5 m/s
requires a force of 98.1 N to maintain the speed. Determine the dynamic viscosity of the oil
in poise and kinematic viscosity of oil in stokes if the specific gravity of the oil is 0.95

Ans: 13.635 Poise and 14.35 stokes

5. The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20 oC is 0.0725 N/m. The pressure inside
a droplet of water is to be 0.02 N/cm2 greater than the outside pressure. Calculate the
diameter of the droplet of water.
Ans: 1.45 mm

6. Calculate the capillary effect in millimeters in a glass tube of 4mm diameter, when
immersed in water and mercury. The temperature of the liquid is 20 oC and the values of
surface tension of water and mercury at 20 oC in contact with air are 0.073575 and 0.51 N/m.
The angle of contact for water is zero and that of mercury is 130 degrees.
HYDROSTATIC LAW OF EQUILIBRIUM

In a stationary mass of a single static fluid, the

pressure is constant in any cross section parallel
to the earth's surface but varies from height to
height.

Consider the vertical column of fluid. Assume the

cross-sectional area of the column is S. At a height Z
above the base of the column let the pressure be P
and the density be . The resultant of all forces on
the small volume of fluid of height dZ and cross-
sectional area S must be zero.

Three vertical forces are acting on this volume:

(1) The force from pressure p acting in an upward direction, which is p S;

(2) The force from pressure p +dp acting in a downward direction, which is (p + dp)S;

(3) The force of gravity acting downward, which is g S dz

 PS (P+dP) S - g S dz = 0

In this equation, forces acting upward are taken as positive and those acting downward as
negative. After simplification and division by S,

dP + g dz = 0

The above equation cannot be integrated for compressible fluids unless the variation
of density with pressure is known throughout the column of fluid.

However, it is often satisfactory for engineering calculations to consider to be essentially

constant.

The density is constant for incompressible fluids and, except for large changes in height, is
nearly so for compressible fluids.

Integration the equation the assumption that is constant give: P/ + g z = constant

or, between the two definite heights Za, and Zb (Pb - Pa) / = g (Za Z b)

Hydrostatic Law:
It states that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal to weight density of
the fluid at that point
Barometric Equation

For an ideal gas the density and pressure are related by the equation = P M / RT

Substitution of in dP + g dz = 0 we get dP/ P + g M dZ / RT = 0

Integration of above equation between levels a and b, on the assumption that T is constant,
gives

Ln (Pb / Pa) = g M / RT (Zb Za)

Pb / Pa = e ( g M / RT (Zb Za) )

A hydraulic press has a ram of 30 cm diameter and a plunger of 4.5 cm diameter.

Find the weight lifted by the hydraulic press when the force applied at the plunger
is 500 N.
 ABSOLUTE, GAUGE, ATMOSPHERIC AND
VACUUM PRESSURES

The pressure on a fluid is measured in two different systems. In one

system it is measured above the absolute zero or complete vacuum
and it is called the absolute pressure and in other system pressure is
measured above the atmospheric pressure and it is called gauge
pressure.
Absolute pressure is defined as the pressure which is measured with
reference to absolute vacuum pressure.
Gauge pressure is defined as the pressure which is measured with the
help of a pressure measuring instrument in which the atmospheric
pressure is taken as datum. The atmospheric pressure on the scale is
marked as zero.
Vacuum pressure is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric
pressure.
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE

Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure

Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure - Absolute pressure.

The pressure of a fluid is measured by the

following devices:

1. Manometers Mechanical Gauges:

2. Mechanical Gauges
Manometers:
They are defined as the devices used for
measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid by
balancing the column of fluid by the same or
another column of the fluid. They are
(I) Simple Manometers.
(II) Differential Manometers
Mechanical gauges are defined as the
devices used for measuring the pressure
by balancing the fluid column by the
spring or dead weight. The commonly
used mechanical pressure gauges are:
Diaphragm pressure gauge
Dead-weight pressure gauge
Bourdon tube pressure gauge
Bellows pressure gauge
SIMPLE MANOMETERS
A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its ends
connected to a point where pressure is to be measured and other end
remains open to atmosphere. Common types of simple manometers
are:
I. Piezometer,
2. U-tube Manometer,
3. Single Column Manometer

Piezometer:
It is the simplest form of manometer used for measuring gauge pressures. One
end of this manometer is connected to the point where pressure is to be
measured and other end is open to the atmosphere. The rise of liquid gives the
pressure head at that point. If at a point A, the height of liquid say water is h in
piezometer tube. then pressure at A is P = g h
U-tube Manometer
It consists of glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is connected to a point
at which pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to the
atmosphere. The tube generally contains mercury or any other liquid whose
specific gravity is greater than the specific gravity of the liquid whose pressure is to
be me assumed.

Gauge Pressure:

Let B is the point at which pressure is to be measured, whose value is p.

The datum line is A-A.
Let h1 = Height of light liquid above the datum line
h2 = Height of heavy liquid above the datum line
S1 = Sp. gr. of light liquid
1 = Density of light liquid = 1000 x S1
S2 = Sp. gr. of heavy liquid
2 = Density of heavy liquid = 1000 x S2
 As the pressure is the same for the horizontal surface. Hence pressure above
the horizontal datum line A-A in the left column and in the right column of U-
tube manometer should be same.
Pressure above A-A in the left column = P + 1 x g X h1
Pressure above A-A in the right column = 2 x g X h2
Equating the two pressures: P + 1 x g X h1 = 2 x g X h2
P = (2 x g X h2 - 1 x g X h1 )

Vacuum Pressure:
For measuring vacuum pressure, level of the heavy
liquid in the manometer
Pressure above A-A in the left column
= P + 1 x g X h1 + 2 x g X h2
Pressure head in the right column above A-A = O

P = - (1 x g X h1 + 2 x g X h2)
Vacuum Pressure:
Single Column Manometer:
Single column manometer is a modified form of a U-tube manometer in which a reservoir,
having a large cross-sectional area (about 100 times) as compared to the area of the tube is
connected to one of the limbs (say left limb) of the manometer. Due to large cross-
sectional area of the reservoir for any variation in pressure, the change in the liquid level in
the reservoir will be very small which may be neglected and hence the pressure is given by
the height of liquid in the other limb. The other limb may be vertical or inclined. Thus
there are two types of single column manometer as :

1. Vertical Single Column Manometer.

2. Inclined Single Column Manometer.

Vertical Single Column Manometer

Let x-x be the datum line in the reservoir and in the right limb of the manometer, when it is
not connected to the pipe. When the manometer connected to the pipe due to high pressure
at A the heavy liquid in the reservoir will be pushed downward and will rise in the right
limb.
 Let
h = Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir
h2= Raise of heavy liquid in right limb
h1= Height of center of pipe above X-X
PA= Pressure at A, which is to be measured
A = Cross-sectional area of the reservoir
Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir will cause a
rise of heavy liquid level in the right limb.
Equating these pressures we have
g * 2 * ( h + h2 ) = g * 1* ( h + h1 ) + PA
PA = h ( 2 * g - 1 * g + h2 * 2 * g - h1 * 1 * g )
PA = a * h2 / A ( 2 * g - 1 * g + h2 * 2 * g - h1 * 1 * g )
As the area A is very large as compared to a, hence ratio
a/A becomes very small and can be A neglected.
PA = ( h2 2 g - h1 * 1 * g )
a = Cross-sectional area of the right limb
S1=Sp. gf. of liquid in pipe
S2 = Sp. gr. of heavy liquid in reservoir
and right limb
2 = Density of liquid in pipe
l = Density of liquid in reservoir
Now consider the datum Iine Y-Y .
Then pressure in the right limb above Y-Y.
g * 2 * ( h + h2 )
Then pressure in the left limb above Y-Y.
g * 1* ( h + h1 ) + PA
It is clear that as h1 is known
and hence by knowing h2 or rise
of heavy liquid in the right limb,
the pressure at A can be
calculated.
 Inclined Single Column Manometer
This manometer is more sensitive. Due to inclination
the distance moved by the heavy liquid in the right limb
will be more.
L = Length of heavy liquid moved in right limb from X-X
= Inclination of right limb with horizontal
h2= Vertical rise of heavy liquid in right limb from X-X:= L * sin

The pressure at A is PA = ( h2 2 g - h1 * 1 * g )

Substituting the value of h2 we get PA = ( L*sin * 2 g - h1 * 1 * g )

Differential Manometer
Differential manometers are the devices used for measuring The difference of pressures between
two points in a pipe or in two different pipes. A differential manometer consists o f a U-tube,
containing a heavy liquid whose two ends are connected to the points, whose difference of
pressure is to be measured. Most commonly types of differential manometers are:

1. U-tube differential manometer and

2. Inverted U-tube differential manometer.
U-tube Differential Manometer:
let the two points A and B are at different level and also
contains liquids of different sp. gr. These points are connected
to the U-tube differential manometer. Let the pressure at A
and B are PA and PB

Taking datum line at X-X. Pressure above X-X h = Difference of mercury level in the U tube
in the left limb = y and x = Distance of the center of B and A
g * 1 * ( X + h ) + PA from the mercury level in the right limb

Pressure above X-X in the right limb 1 = Density of liquid at A.

g * g * h + g * 2 * y + PB 2 = Density of liquid at B.
g = Density of heavy liquid or mercury.
Equating the two pressure, we have

g * 1 * ( X + h ) + PA = g * g * h + g * 2 * y + PB

PA PB = h * g (g - 1 ) + 2 * g * y 1 * g * x
 A and B are at the same level and contains the same liquid
of density 1

Pressure above X-X in the right limb g * S* h + g * 1 * x + PB

Pressure above X-X in the left limb g * 1 * ( X + h ) + PA

Equating the two pressure, we have

g * S* h + g * 1 * x + PB = g * 1 * ( X + h ) + PA

PA PB = h * g (g - 1 )

Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer.

It consists of an inverted U-tube, containing a light liquid. The two ends of the tube are
connected to the points whose difference of pressure is to be measured. It is used for
measuring difference .of low pressures. An inverted U tube differential manometer
connected to the two points A and B. Let the pressure at A is more than the pressure at B.
Taking XX as datum line. Then pressure in the left limb
below X-X
PA - g * 1 * h1

Pressure in the right limb below X -X

PB - g * S* h + g * 2* h2

Equating the two gauge pressure

PA PB = 1 * g * h1 2 * g * h2 - h * g * g
h1 = Height of liquid in left limb
below the datum line X-X
h2 = Height of liquid in right limb
h = Difference of light liquid
1 = Density of liquid at A
2 = Density of liquid at B
g= Density of light I1quid
PA = Pressure at A
PB = Pressure at B.
The right limb of a simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is
open to the atmosphere while the left limb is connected to a pipe in
which a fluid of Sp. gr. 0.9 is flowing. The center of the pipe is 12 cm
below the level of mercury in the right limb. Find the pressure of fluid
in the pipe If the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 20 cm.

A single column manometer is connected to a pipe containing a liquid

of sp. gr. 0.9 as shown in Fig. Find the pressure in the pipe if the area
of the reservoir is 100 times the area of the tube for the manometer
reading shown in Fig. The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.

A pipe contains an oil of sp. gr. 0.9. A differential manometer

connected at the two points A and B shows a difference in mercury
level as 15 cm. Find the difference of pressure at the two points.

An open tank contains water upto a depth of 2m and above it an oil

of sp. gr. 0.9 for a depth of 1 m. Find the pressure intensity (i) at the
interface of the two liquids, and (ii) at the bottom of the tank.
 Dimensions and Units

In fluid mechanics we must describe various fluid characteristics

in terms of certain basic quantities such as length, time and
mass
A dimension is the measure by which a physical variable is
expressed qualitatively, i.e. length is a dimension associated with
distance, width, height, displacement.
Basic dimensions: Length, L
(or primary quantities) Time, T
Mass, M
Temperature,
We can derive any secondary quantity from the primary
quantities i.e. Force = (mass) x (acceleration) : F = M L T-2
 Dimensions and Units

British English
Primary
SI Unit Gravitational Engineering (EE)
Dimension
(BG) Unit Unit
Mass [M] Kilogram (kg) Slug Pound-mass (lbm)

Length [L] Meter (m) Foot (ft) Foot (ft)

Time [T] Second (s) Second (s) Second (s)

Temperature [] Kelvin (K) Rankine (R) Rankine (R)

 Buckingham pi theorem
If there are n variables (independent and dependent variables) in a physical
phenomenon and if these variables contain m fundamental dimensions (M, L,
T). Then the variables are arranged into (n-m) dimensionless terms. Each term
is called pi.

Let X1, X2, X3 ... , Xn are the variables involved in a physical problem. Let X1
be the dependent variable, and X2, X3, ... , Xn are the independent variables on
which X1, depends. Then X1, is a function of X2, X3.Xn

Mathematically it is expressed as X1 =f(X2,X3 ..... Xn) = 0

The equation is dimensionally homogeneous. It contains n variables If there are

m fundamental dimensions then according to Buckingham Pi theorem, it can be
written in terms of number of dimension less groups in which number of Pi
terms is equal to (n-m)
f(1, 2,..n-m) = 0
Method of selecting repeating variables:
The number or repealing variables are equal to the number of fundamental
dimensions of the problem. The choice of repealing variables is governed by the
following considerations:

1. As far as possible, the dependent variable should not be selected as

repeating variable.
2. The repeating variable should be chosen in such away that one variable
contains geometric property, other variable contains flow property and third
variable contains fluid property.
Variable with Geometric Property are: Length , dia and Height etc.
Variables with flow properties are: Velocity, acceleration etc
Variables with fluid properties are : viscosity, density etc
3. The repeating variables selected should not form a dimensionless group.
4. The repeating variables together must have same number of fundamental
dimensions.
5. No two repeating variables should have same dimensions
The resistance force R of a supersonic plane during flight can
be considered as dependent on the length, velocity, viscosity,
density and bulk modulus of air. Express the functional
relationship between these variables and resistance force.

Resistance force R depends on:

Length L
Velocity L T-1
Density M L-3
Viscosity M L-1 T-1
Bulk modulus M L-1 T-2
Resistance M L T-2
The resisting force R depends upon (i) l (ii) V (iii) (iv) and (v) K.
Hence R is a function of l, V, , and K.
Mathematically, R = f (l, V, , , K) can also be written as f1(R, l, V, , , K) = 0
The total number of variable (n) = 6
The total number of fundamental dimensions (m) = 3
Number of Dimensionless terms = n m = 6 - 3 = 3
There are three reference dimensions involved, so we need to select three repeating
variable.
These repeating variables should be dimensionally independent, i.e. dimensionless
product cannot be formed from this set.
In this case, l, V, may be chosen as the repeating variables.

The pi terms formed between the dependent variable and the repeating variables
are:
1 = l a1 , Vb1 , c1, R
2 = l a2 , Vb2 , c2,
3 = l a3 , Vb3 , c3, K

But 1 = 2 = 3 = M0 L0 T0
Solving the first Pi term and equating the powers of M, L,T on both sides

M0 L0 T0 = (L) a1 (L T-1) b1 (M L-3) c1 (M L T-2)

Power of M c1 + 1 = 0 c1 = -1
Power of T -2 b1 = 0 b1 = - 2
Power of L a1 + b1 - 3c1 + 1 = 0 a1 = -2

Substituting the values we get:

1 = l -2 V -2 -1 R = R / l2 V2

Solving the second Pi term and equating the powers of M, L,T on both sides

M0 L0 T0 = (L) a2 (L T-1) b2 (M L-3) c2 (M L-1 T-1)

Power of M c2 + 1 = 0 c2 = -1
Power of T -1 b2 = 0 b2 = -1
Power of L a2 + b2 - 3c2 + 1 = 0 a2 = -1

Substituting the values we get:

2 = l -1 V -1 -1 = / l V
Solving the Third Pi term and equating the powers of M, L,T on both sides

M0 L0 T0 = (L) a3 (L T-1) b3 (M L-3) c3 (M L-1 T-2)

Power of M c3 + 1 = 0 c3 = -1
Power of T -2 b3 = 0 b3 = -2
Power of L a3 + b3 - 3c3 - 1 = 0 a3 = 0

Substituting the values we get:

3 = l 0 V -2 -1 K = K / V 2

Substituting the values of 1 2 3 ; we get

or
 Rayleigh method
This method is used to determined the expression for a variable
which depends on maximum 3 or 4 variables. If the number of
independent variables becomes more than 4 then it is very
difficult to find the expression for the dependent variables.

Let X be a variable which depends on X1, X2, X3,.

Then according to Rayleigh method, X is a function of the above

variables expressed as x = f(X1,X2,X3).

It can also be written as X= k.(X1a X2b X3c )

The resistance force R of a supersonic plane during flight can be
considered as dependent on the length, velocity, viscosity, density
and bulk modulus of air. Express the functional relationship between
these variables and resistance force.

Resistance force R depends on

Length L
Velocity L T-1
Density M L-3
Viscosity M L-1 T-1
Bulk modulus M L-1 T-2
Resistance M L T-2

According to Rayleighs method it can be expressed as

R = A La Vb c d Ke
 M L T-2 = A (La) (L T-1) b (M L-1 T-1)c (M L-3)d (M L-1 T-2)e
Equating the powers of M, L and T we get.
(M) c+d+e=1
(L) a+ b - c- 3d - e = 1
(T) b c - 2e = -2
There are five unknowns and three equations. Expressing three unknowns in
terms of two unknowns ( and K). Express the value of a, b and d in terms of
c and e, we get
d=1c-e
b=2c2e
a = 1- b + c + 3 d + e substituting the values of b and d, we get
a=2-c
Substituting the values of a, b, c, d and e we get.

R = A (L2 - c) (L T-1) (2 c 2e) (M L-1 T-1) c (M L-3) (1 c - e) (M L-1 T-2)e

R = A l2 V2 ( / V L) . (K / V2)

R = A l2 V2 f {( / V L) . (K / V2)}
Model Analysis:

For predicting the performance of machines or

equipment, before actually constructing or
manufacturing, models are made and tests are
performed on them to obtain the desired information.

Model small scale replica of actual equipment

Prototype actual equipment

Study of models of actual equipment is called model

analysis.
Advantages of model analysis:

1. Performance of equipment can be easily predicted in advance

from its model.

2. A relationship between the variables influencing a flow problem

in terms of dimensionless parameters is obtained.

3. Merits of alternative designs can be predicted.

4. In advance obtain useful information about the performance of

prototype.
Similitude:
1. Geometric similarity:
The ratio of all corresponding linear dimension in the
model and prototype are equal.

2. Kinematic similarity:
Velocity and acceleration at the corresponding points
in the model and at the corresponding points in
prototype are same.

3. Dynamic similarity:
Forces are equal.
Model Laws:

If dynamic similarity exists between model and prototype, the

dimensionless numbers should be same for model and prototype.

But it is quite difficult to satisfy the condition that all

dimensionless numbers are same for model and prototype.

Hence models are designed on the basis of ratio of the force, which
is dominating in the phenomenon.

The laws on which the models are designed for dynamic similarity
are called model laws.