Ch12 Lecture 3e

Ch 12
Resource Management,
Forestry, Land Use, and
Protected Areas
Part 2: Environmental Issues
and the Search for Solutions
PowerPoint Slides prepared by

Jay Withgott and Heidi Marcum
Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
This lecture will help you understand:
Resource management
Forests and forest loss
Forest contributions and loss
Forest management and harvest
methods
Agricultural land use
The major federal land
management agencies
Park and preserve design

Central Case: Battling over the last big trees
In 1993, protestors blocked loggers from cutting ancient trees on
Vancouver Island, British Columbia
- Most of Canadas old-growth temperate rainforest is already
gone
- 20% of the jobs depends on the timber industry
Both sides struck a deal allowing environmentally friendly

practices and encouraging ecotourism
Resources are vital to us
We need to carefully manage the limited resources

we take from the natural world
Resource management = the practice of harvesting
potentially renewable resources in ways that do not
deplete them
- Resource managers are influenced by political,
economic, and social factors
- A key question is whether to focus on the resource
of interest or to look more broadly at the entire
environmental system

Natural resources are vital to us
We need resources
- Soils: agriculture, natural
communities
- Water: drinking, agriculture,
wildlife
- Wildlife and fisheries: game,
nongame, and marine species
- Rangeland: livestock
- Minerals: mined
nonrenewable resources

Maximum sustainable yield
Maximum sustainable yield = aims to achieve the
maximum amount of resource extraction
- Without depleting the resource from one harvest to the
next
Populations grow most rapidly at an intermediate size
- Population size is about half its carrying capacity
- Managed populations are well below what they would
naturally be
Reducing populations so
drastically affects other
species and can change the
entire ecosystem

Ecosystem-based management
Ecosystem-based management = managing the

harvesting of resources to minimize impact on the
ecosystems and ecological processes
- Carefully managing ecologically important areas
- Considering patterns at the landscape level
- Protecting some forested areas
It is challenging for managers to determine how to
implement this type of management
- Ecosystems are complex, and our understanding of
how they operate is limited

Adaptive management evolves and improves
Adaptive management = systematically testing different

management approaches and aiming to improve methods
- Monitoring results and adjusting methods as needed
- A fusion of science and management
- Time-consuming and complicated
The 1994 Northwest Forest Plan resolved disputes between
loggers and preservationists over the remaining old-growth
temperate rainforests in the continental U.S.
- Allowed limited logging
- Protected species and ecosystems
- Science-guided management in Oregon, Washington, and
California

Forest Management
Forests cover over 30% of Earths land surface
- Provide habitat, maintain soil, air, and water quality, and play
key roles in biogeochemical cycles
- Provide wood for fuel, construction, paper production
Foresters, professionals who manage forests through the practice
of forestry, must balance ecosystem services with demand for
wood products

Ecological value of forests
One of the richest ecosystems for biodiversity
- Structural complexity houses great biodiversity
A forest provides many ecosystem services
- Stabilizes soil and prevents erosion
- Slows runoff, lessens flooding, purifies water
- Stores carbon, releases oxygen, moderates climate

Economic value of forests
Benefits: fuel, shelter,
transportation (boats), paper
Helped society achieve a high
standard of living
Logging Locations:
- Boreal Forests: Canada,
Russia
- Rainforests: Brazil,
Indonesia
- Conifer Forests/Pine
Plantations: U.S.
In 2005, over 1/3 all forests were designated for timber production

Demand for wood leads to deforestation
Deforestation = the clearing and
loss of forests
- Alters landscapes and
ecosystems
- Degrades soil
- Causes species decline and
extinction
- Ruins civilizations
- Adds carbon dioxide to the air
Developing countries boost their economies and get land

for their growing populations by logging forests
Deforestation in America and Canada
Deforestation propelled the

westward expansion and
growth of America and
Canada
- Eastern deciduous forests
were the first to be logged
for farms and to build
cities (i.e., Chicago)
- Timber companies moved
south to the Ozarks and
west to the Rockies

Loggers moved westward, searching for
large trees
Primary forest = natural forest uncut by people
- Little remained by the 20th century
Second-growth trees = grown to partial maturity after old-
growth timber has been cut

Loggers lose their jobs with deforestation
As each region is deforested, the timber industry declines

and moves on
- Local loggers lose their jobs
Once the remaining ancient trees of North America are
gone, loggers will once again lose jobs
- Companies will simply move to another area
The scarcity of remaining old-growth trees fuels scientific
concerns and empassions environmentalists

Deforestation is proceeding rapidly
worldwide
Uncut tropical forests still remain in many developing countries

- Technology allows for even faster exploitation
- Deforestation is rapid in places such as Brazil and Indonesia
Developing countries are so desperate for economic development,
they have few logging restrictions
- Short-term economic benefits go to foreign multinational
corporations
- Governments often help companies, at the expense of native
people

Timber famine fears spurred forest
protection
National forest system = a system of forest reserves and public
lands
- To grow trees, produce timber, protect watersheds, and ensure
future timber supplies
- Resulted from depletion of U.S. forests and fear of a timber
famine
- 77 million ha (191 million acres); 8% of the U.S. land area
The U.S. Forest Service was established in 1905
- Manage forests for the greatest good of the greatest number
in the long run, including logging

Federal agencies own land in the U.S.

Timber is extracted from public and private
land
Timber is extracted by private companies, even on public land
- Forest Service employees plan and manage timber sales
and build roads
- The companies log and sell the timber for profit

Most logging occurs on private land
But, millions of cubic feet per year are still logged from
national forests
- Timber harvesting remains stable in developed
countries
- Timber companies manage forests according to the
maximum sustained yield approach
Management on public lands reflects economic forces,
along with social and political ones
- These change over time
- Public concern, changing management philosophies
and economics caused harvests to decrease

Plantation forestry
The timber industry focuses on timber plantations
- Fast-growing species
- Monocultures
- Even-aged trees = all trees are the same age
Trees are cut at the end of the rotation time and replanted
- Plantations are crops, not functional forests
Some harvesting methods maintain uneven-aged (mixed ages
of trees and species) tree stands

Harvesting timber: clear-cutting
- All trees in the area are
cut
- Most cost-efficient
- Greatest impact on forest
ecosystems
- May mimic some natural
forms of disturbance
- Destroy entire
communities
- Soil erosion
- Public is outraged over
this type of harvesting
Harvesting: other methods
Seed-tree cutting = a small number of seed-producing
trees are left standing to reseed the area
Shelterwood cutting = a small number of trees are left to
provide shelter for the seedlings
Selection systems = only select trees are cut
- Single tree selection = widely spaced trees are cut
- Group tree selection = small patches of trees are cut
All methods disturb habitat
- Change forest structure and composition
- Increase erosion, siltation, runoff, flooding, landslides

Public forests can be managed for many
things
Increased public awareness caused people to urge
changed forest management
- For recreation, wildlife and ecosystem integrity,
instead of logging
- Critics protested federal subsidies of logging
companies
Multiple use policy = national forests were to be
managed for recreation, habitat, minerals and other uses
- In reality, timber production is the primary use
The Forest Service loses $100 million/yr by selling timber below cost

Harvesting forests

The National Forest Management Act (1976)
Mandated that plans for renewable resource management had

to be drawn up for every national forest
Guidelines included:
- Consideration of both economic and environmental factors
- Provision for species diversity
- Ensuring research and monitoring
- Permitting only sustainable harvests
- Protection of soils and wetlands
- Assessing all impacts before logging to protect resources

New forestry management is under attack
Calls for timber cuts that mimic natural disturbances

- Harvesting methods are based on ecosystem approaches
The Bush administration has rolled back these regulations
- Freed managers from requirements of the Act
- Loosened environmental protections
- Repealed President Clintons roadless rule, which protected
31% of national forests from road building
- California, Oregon, and New Mexico have sued the government
to reinstate the roadless rule

Fire policy also stirs controversy
For over 100 years, the Forest Service

suppressed all fires
- But many ecosystems depend on
fires
- Fire suppression allows woody
accumulation, which produces
kindling for future fires
- Which are much worse
Housing development near forests and
climate change will increase fire risk

Prescribed fires are misunderstood
Prescribed (controlled) burns = burning areas of forests

under carefully controlled conditions
- Effective
- May get out of control
- Impeded by public misunderstanding and political
interference
Healthy Forests Restoration Act (2003) = promotes
removal of small trees, underbrush and dead trees
- Passed in response to forest fires

Salvage logging
Removal of dead trees following a natural disturbance

Seems logical, but is really destructive
- Snags (standing dead trees) provide nesting cavities
for countless animals
- Removing timber from recently burned areas increases
erosion and soil damage
- Promotes future fires
- Increases commercial logging in national forests
- Decreases oversight and public participation

Sustainable forestry is gaining ground
Sustainable forestry certification = only products produced
sustainably can be certified
- International Organization for Standardization (ISO),
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) have different standards
- Consumers look for logos to buy sustainably produced
timber
- Companies such as Home Depot sell sustainable wood
- Encourages better logging practices

Agricultural land use
Agriculture covers 38% of the Earths terrestrial surface

- 26% supports pasture, 12% supports crops
- The most widespread type of land use
- Causes tremendous environmental impacts
Governments spend billions of dollars on subsidies
- Proponents say farmers need this insurance against bad
years
- Critics say farmers should buy their own insurance

Wetlands have been drained for farming
Many crop lands grow on

former wetlands
Governments have encouraged
wetland draining
- Promote settlement and
farming
- Transferred land to states
- Stimulated draining
Less than half the wetlands
remain

Perspectives on wetlands are changing
Many people have a new view of wetlands

- Not worthless swamps, but valuable ecosystems
- Demanded regulations to safeguard remaining
wetlands
- But, because of loopholes, wetlands are still being lost
Conservation Reserve Program (1985) subsidized
farmers to take highly erodable land out of production
- Turn it into wildlife habitat

Livestock graze one-fourth of Earths land
Grazing can be sustainable if done carefully and at low

intensity
Bureau of Land Management (BLM) = owns and manages
most U.S. rangeland
- Nations single largest landowner: 106 million ha (261
million acres) across 12 western states
- Ranchers can graze cattle on BLM lands for low fees
- Low fees encourage overgrazing
Ranchers and environmentalists have joined to preserve

ranchland against development and urban sprawl

Management of the American West
Overexploitation of resources caused great

damage to the American West
- Poor farming practices, overgrazing,
farming arid lands
John Wesley Powell in the late 1800s called
for agencies to base management on science
- Farming Western lands had to account
for arid conditions
- His ideas were ignored, contributing to
failures such as the Dust Bowl of the
1930s

Parks and reserves
Reasons for establishing parks and reserves include:
- Monumentalism = preserving areas with enormous,
beautiful or unusual features, such as the Grand
Canyon
- Offer recreational value to tourists, hikers, fishers,
hunters and others
- Protect areas with utilitarian benefits, such as clean
drinking water
- Use sites that are otherwise economically not valuable
and are therefore easy to protect
- Preservation of biodiversity

Federal parks and reserves began in the U.S.
National parks = public lands

protected from resource
extraction and development
- Open to nature appreciation
and recreation
- Yellowstone National Park
was established in 1872
The Antiquities Act of 1906
- The president can declare
selected public lands as
national monuments

The National Park Service (NPS)
Created in 1916 to administer parks and monuments

- 388 sites totaling 32 million ha (72 million acres)
- Includes national historic sites, national recreation
areas, national wild and scenic rivers
- 273 million visitors in 2006

National Wildlife Refuges
Begun in 1903 by President Theodore Roosevelt

37 million ha (91 million acres) in 541 sites
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service administers refuges
- Management ranges from preservation to manipulation
- Wildlife havens
- Allows hunting, fishing, wildlife observation,
photography, education

Wilderness areas
Wilderness areas = area is off-

limits to development of any kind
- Open to the public for hiking,
nature study, etc.
- Must have minimal impact on
the land
- Necessary to ensure that
humans dont occupy and
modify all natural areas
Established within federal lands
- Overseen by the agencies that
administer those areas

Not everyone supports land set-asides
Restriction of activities in wilderness areas generated

opposition to U.S. land protection policies
- Some western states want resource extraction and
development
The wise-use movement = a coalition of individuals
and industries that oppose environmental protection
- Protecting private property, transferring federal
lands to state or private hands, promoting
motorized recreation on public lands
- Farmers, ranchers, loggers, mineral and fossil fuel
industries
Wilderness protection has been weakened
President George W. Bush has weakened wilderness

protection
- Federal agencies have shifted policies and enforcement
- Away from preservation and conservation
- Toward recreation and resource extraction

Nonfederal entities also protect land
Each U.S. state and Canadian province has agencies that

manage resources
- So do counties and municipalities
Land trusts = local or regional organizations that
purchase land to protect it
- The Nature Conservancy is the worlds largest land
trust
- Trusts protect 4.1 million ha (10.2 million acres)
- Jackson Hole, Wyoming is protected by a land trust

Parks and reserves are increasing
internationally
Many nations have established national parks

- Benefit from ecotourism
- Protected areas now cover 9.6% of the worlds land area
Parks do not always receive necessary funding
- Paper parks = Areas protected on paper but not in reality
- World heritage sites = protected areas that fall under national
sovereignty but are designated or managed by the United
Nations
- 830 sites across 184 countries

Transboundary and peace parks
Transboundary park = an area of protected land

overlapping national borders
- For example, Waterton-Glacier National Parks in the
U.S. and Canada
Peace parks = transboundary reserves that help ease
tensions by acting as buffers between nations
Biosphere reserves = land with exceptional biodiversity
- Couple preservation with sustainable development

Biosphere reserves have several zones
This can be a win-win situation for everyone

Habitat fragmentation threatens species
Contiguous habitat is chopped into small
pieces
- Species suffer

The SLOSS dilemma
Which is better to protect species?

- A Single Large Or Several Small reserves?
- Depends on the species: tigers vs. insects
Corridors = protected land that allows animals to travel
between islands of protected habitat
- Animals get more resources
- Enables gene flow between populations

Conclusion
Resources must be managed sustainably to avoid

overexploitation and overharvesting
Many nations have established federal and regional
agencies to manage publicly held land and natural
resources
Resource management policies first emphasized
extraction then shifted into sustained yield and multiple
use
Public support for land preservation resulted in parks,
wilderness areas and other reserves

QUESTION: Review
If an area is managed for Maximum Sustained Yield, and
the area can support 100 organisms, how many organisms
will be allowed to remain in the area?
a) 100
b) 75
c) 50
d) 25

QUESTION: Review
Which of the following is not part of the ecological value
of forests?
a) Erosion prevention
b) Decreased flooding
c) Carbon storage
d) Climate moderation
e) All of the above are values of forests

QUESTION: Review
Which of the following statement regarding forest
management is false?
a) Deforestation in the U.S. has occurred for centuries

b) Timber companies move on after an area is
deforested
c) Tropical countries have lost the majority of forests
so timber companies wont be going there
d) Governments in developing countries help logging
companies at the expense of native people

QUESTION: Review
Which agency manages national forests?
a) U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

b) U.S. Forest Service
c) Bureau of Land Management
d) National Park Service

QUESTION: Review
Tree harvesting by clear-cutting.
a) Cuts all trees in an area, leaving only stumps

b) Cuts most trees, but leaves some to produce seeds
c) Cuts most trees, but leaves some to shelter seedlings
d) Produces uneven-aged tree stands

QUESTION: Review
The National Forest Management Act of 1976 guidelines
included all of the following, except:
a) Consideration of economic factors

b) Soil protection
c) Increased harvesting under times of economic stress
d) Provisions for species diversity

QUESTION: Review
The Conservation Reserve Program:
a) Pays farmers subsidies to drain wetlands

b) Pays farmers subsidies to protect wetlands
c) Pays farmers to increase livestock on BLM lands
d) Encourages cities to drain wetlands for expansion

QUESTION: Review
Monumentalism refers to:
a) Protecting very large trees

b) Protecting areas with large buildings
c) Growing the largest crops possible
d) Preserving lands with enormous or beautiful features

QUESTION: Review
Which areas are off limits to all development?
a) National forests
b) National parks
c) Wilderness areas
d) BLM lands

QUESTION: Review
How does habitat fragmentation threaten species?
a) Large lands are chopped into small pieces

b) Small lands are not protected
c) Species are able to find each other more easily
d) It does not threaten species

QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data
Which type of land ownership has more trees being cut

than growing?
a) National forests
b) Other public forests
c) Forest industry land
d) Other private land

QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data
Which area of the world had the largest increase in paper

consumption between 1990 and 2000?
a) Africa
b) Asia
c) Europe
d) North America

QUESTION: Viewpoints
Should people be allowed to build homes alongside
national parks that periodically experience fire?
a) Yes, people should be allowed to build wherever

they want
b) Yes, but only if they carry enough insurance
c) No, the government should buy the land as a
buffer zone
d) I dont care, I dont own a home in a fire-prone
area

QUESTION: Viewpoints
Should farmers and ranchers get federal subsidies to
protect their land?
a) Absolutely yes; we pay subsidies for everything

else
b) Maybe, if the farmer earns below a certain amount
of money
c) No; all subsidies are bad, regardless of their goals
d) I would agree, if I could get a subsidy

Ch12 Lecture 3e

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Ch 12

PowerPoint Slides prepared by

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Both sides struck a deal allowing environmentally friendly

We need to carefully manage the limited resources

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Ecosystem-based management = managing the

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Adaptive management = systematically testing different

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Developing countries boost their economies and get land

Deforestation propelled the

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

As each region is deforested, the timber industry declines

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Uncut tropical forests still remain in many developing countries

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Mandated that plans for renewable resource management had

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Calls for timber cuts that mimic natural disturbances

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

For over 100 years, the Forest Service

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Prescribed (controlled) burns = burning areas of forests

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Removal of dead trees following a natural disturbance

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Agriculture covers 38% of the Earths terrestrial surface

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Many crop lands grow on

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Many people have a new view of wetlands

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Grazing can be sustainable if done carefully and at low

Ranchers and environmentalists have joined to preserve

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Overexploitation of resources caused great

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

National parks = public lands

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Created in 1916 to administer parks and monuments

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Begun in 1903 by President Theodore Roosevelt

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Wilderness areas = area is off-

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Restriction of activities in wilderness areas generated