Chapter 6

HARDENED CONCRETE

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 6.1 Shrinkage (decrease in volume)
Shrinkage of concrete is caused by the settlement of
solids and the loss of free water from the plastic
concrete (plastic shrinkage),
by the chemical combination of cement with water
(autogenous shrinkage) and
by the drying concrete (drying shrinkage).

CRACKING: Where movement of the concrete is

restrained, shrinkage will produce tensile stress within
the concrete, which may cause cracking.

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 6.1 Shrinkage
6.1.1 Plastic Shrinkage
Shrinkage, which takes place before concrete has set, is
known as plastic shrinkage.
Occurs as a result of the loss of free water and the
settlement of solids in the mix.
Plastic shrinkage is most common in slab construction
and is characterized by the appearance of surface cracks
which can extend quite deeply into the concrete.
Preventive measures: Reduce water loss by any curing
methods (cover concrete with wet polythene sheets or by
spraying a membrane-curing compound).

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 Plastic Concrete

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 Plastic Shrinkage Cracks

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 Factors Affecting Drying
Shrinkage
Type, content and proportion of the constituent materials of
concrete (cement, water, aggregates, etc),
Size and shape of the concrete structure,
Amount and distribution of reinforcement,
Relative humidity of the environment.

Drying shrinkage is directly proportional to the water-cement ratio

and inversely proportional to the aggregate-cement ratio (Figure
6.1). Because of the interaction of the effects of aggregate-cement
and water-cement ratios, it is possible to have a rich mix with a low
water-cement ratio giving higher shrinkage than a leaner mix with a
higher water-cement ratio.

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 6.1.2 Autogenous Shrinkage
As hydration continues in an environment where
the water content is constant, such as inside a
large mass of concrete, this decrease in volume
of the cement paste results in shrinkage of the
concrete.
This is known as autogenous shrinkage, it is
self-produced by the hydration of cement.
Factors influencing the rate and magnitude of
autogenous shrinkage:
Chemical composition of cement,
Initial water content,
Temperature and time.
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 6.1.3 Drying Shrinkage

When a hardened concrete, cured in water, is allowed to dry it first

loses water from its voids and capillary pores and only starts to
shrink during further drying when water is drawn, out of its cement
gel. This is known as drying shrinkage.

After an initial high rate of drying shrinkage concrete continues to

shrink for a long period of time, but at a continuously decreasing
rate.

For practical purposes, it may be assumed that for small sections 50

per cent of the total shrinkage occurs in the first year.

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 Drying Shrinkage Cracks

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 Figure 6.1 Influence of water/cement ratio and aggregate content on
shrinkage.

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 6.2 Durability
The durability of concrete can be defined
as its resistance to deterioration resulting
from external and internal causes.
External

External

External Internal

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6.2.1 Factors Affecting Durability
External Causes
Physical, chemical or mechanical:
a) Leaching out of cement (Ca(OH)2)
b) Actions of sulphates, seawater and natural slightly
acidic water. The resistance to these attacks varies
with the type of cement used and increases in the
order; OPC and RHC (rapid hardening cement)
Environmental such as occurrence of extreme
temperatures, abrasion and electrostatic action.
Attack by natural or industrial liquids and
gasses.

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6.2.1 Factors Affecting Durability

Internal Causes:
a) Alkali-aggregate reactions
b) Volume change due to difference in
thermal properties of the aggregate and
cement paste.
c) Permeability of concrete.

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 Alkali-Aggregate Reactions:
Is the reactions between the active SILICA
constituents of the aggregate, and ALKALIES in
cement. As a result of these reactions expansion of
cement gel causes cracks.
Reactive form of SILICA occurs in OPALINE.

Recommended Protective Treatments:

Low w/c ratios (less than 0.5)
Suitable workability
Thorough mixing
Proper placing and compaction
Adequate and timely curing.
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6.3 Testing of Hardened Concrete

6.4.1 Compressive Strength

Most important property of hardened concrete. Generally
considered in the design of concrete mixtures.

Dimensions of the concrete specimens usually have the

following sizes:
Cylindrical specimens : 7.5, 10, 15 cm diameters
Cube specimens : 5, 10, 15 cm
Compressive strength is affected by many factors
(environmental, curing condition). Therefore, the actual
strength of concrete will not be the same as the strength
of specimen.
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 Cube & Cylinder Samples

a = 5, 10, 15 cm Diameter = 7.5, 10, 15 cm

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 Testing for Compressive
Strength

cylindrical / cube specimens.

Empty moulds are filled with fresh
concrete using a standard procedure.
After 24 hours the specimens are taken
out of the moulds and moist cured for 28
days at the end of the curing period they
are tested.
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 Compressive strength
P = failure load
D = diameter of cylinder
a = one side of cube

Cube
(100, 150, 200 mm)

Cylinder
(100x200 or
150x300 mm

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 Testing concrete for compression

Cylinder
sample

Total 26 Materials of Construction Lab-Civil Eng. Dept. 19

 Conversion table

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 28-Day Cylinder compressive strengths of concrete classes C14-C35
Concrete Characteristic Mean Minimum Strength Minimum Mean
class compressive Strength Required (field) Strength
strength (MPa) required
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)

C14 14 18 11 17

C16 16 20 13 19

C18 18 - 14 22

C20 20 26 17 23

C25 25 31 22 28

C30 30 36 27 33

C35 35 43 32 38

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 6.4.2 Tensile Strength

The tensile strength of concrete is important to

resist cracking from shrinkage and temperature
changes.
a) Direct Tensile Strength:
Difficult to measure and is not usually done.
b) Splitting Tensile Strength:
The cylindrical specimens (on cube) (placed with
its axis horizontal) is subjected to a line load
(uniform) along the length of the specimen
(Figure 6.4).

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 sp = 0.642 P/s2

sp = 2P/ D L

sp = 0.519 P/s2

23
Figure 6.4 Splitting tensile test styles.
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 Splitting tensile strength

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 Problems on Hardened Concrete
(compressive strength)
Sample size (mm) Failure calculation Compressive
load strength (MPa)
(kN)
Cube (100x100x100 300 300 000/100x100 30.00

Cube (150x150x150) 560 560 000/150x150 24.88

Cylinder (100x200) 730 4x730 000/3.14x100x100 93.00

Cylinder (150x300) 850 4x850 000/3.14x150x150 48.00

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 Problems on Hardened Concrete
(splitting tensile strength)
Style of Sample Failure calculation Splitting
Splitting Size (mm) load tensile
tensile test (kN) strength
(MPa)
Normal Cube 100 150 0.642x150 000/100x100 9.63

Normal Cube 150 185 0.642x185 000/150x150 5.27

diagonal Cube 150 250 0.519x250 000/150x150 5.76

normal Cyl. 150x300 375 2x375 000/3.14x300x150 5.30

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 Problems
1. 1. The 150 mm cubic concrete specimen is crushed under an axial
compressive load of 778 kN at 28 days age. Estimate the 28-day
150x300 mm cylinder compressive strength of the same concrete.

1. 2. A 200 mm cubic concrete specimen is crushed under a

compressive load of 641 kN. Calculate the compressive load
necessary to crush a 150x300 mm cylindrical specimen prepared
from the same mix tested at the same age.

1. Three 150 mm cubic concrete specimens prepared from the same

mix were crushed under uniaxial compressive loads of 560 kN,
570 kN and 558 kN. Calculate the average compressive strength
of concrete. If the split tensile strength of concrete is 15% that of
the average compressive strength, what will be minimum split
tensile load necessary to crush the same cubic specimens.

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