CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
What is Geology?
The term "Geology" means: Geo -Earth and logy - study or reasoning.
Geology is " the study of the whole Earth
But Geology can not be generally defined as the only science of the Earth,
for the Earth is studied by many other sciences apart from geology, such
as Astronomy, Meteorology, Oceanography, etc.
Geology can be defined as the science which deals with the description
and understanding of the Earth from its origin to the present day.
Geology is the science which deals:
With the processes which gave rise to the existence of the Earth
(Physical, chemical, biochemical)
With the processes which are active in the Earth at present.
With the general structure and compositional makeup of the Earth.
 Cond
Generally, Geology studies the Earth
How it was born or originated?
How it (the continents, the atmosphere, the oceans) evolved?
What it is made of or composed of?
What are the internal & external earth processes that gave rise
to the existence of the earth?
Where can the important natural resources (minerals, fuels,
groundwater, Geothermal energy, etc) be found in the earth?
How is the earth affected by people? And How we can help
preserve it?
Today, with the development of space exploration Geologists
are beginning to study specimens and photographs (images)
from the other planets. Perhaps in the near future it may be
renamed as Planetology?
 History
Modern Geology started by James Hutton( 1785)
Earth must be much older than had previously been
supposed in order to allow enough time for mountains to
be eroded and for sediments to form new rocks at the
bottom of the sea, which in turn were raised up to become
dry land.
Sir Charles Lyell (Principle of Geology ,successfully
promoted the doctrine of uniformitarianism(This theory
states that slow geological processes have occurred
throughout the Earth's history and are still occurring
today).
catastrophism -Earth's features formed in single,
catastrophic events and remained unchanged thereafter.
 Cond
Much of 19th-century geology revolved around the question of
the Earth's exact age
By the early 20th century, radiometric dating allowed the Earth's
age to be estimated at 2billion yrs.
The awareness of this vast amount of time opened the door to new
theories about the processes that shaped the planet.
followed by Plutonists (some rocks were formed by volcanism,
which is the deposition of lava from volcanoes), as opposed to
the Neptunists (all rocks had settled out of a large ocean whose
level gradually dropped over time).
The most significant advances the development of the theory
of plate tectonics (in the 1960s), and the refinement of estimates of
the planet's age
The theory revolutionized the Earth sciences
Today the Earth is known to be approximately 4.5 billion years old
 Branches of Geology
Although there is no standard way of classifying the subdivisions of
geology, it is better to classify them in to two major parts
PURE
part of geology deals with the origin of the Earth, the processes which
form and change it and the nature of the materials which constitute it.
Some of the areas of specialization in pure Geology include:
Mineralogy - deals with minerals
Petrology - deals with rocks
Historical Geology (Paleontology, stratigraphy, Palaeoclimatology, etc)
Physical Geology (Geomorphology) - deals with earth's surface features
and their origin
Structural Geology and Tectonics - deals with the structural features of the
earth and the effects of internal processes on earth's surfaces, including
ocean formation and mountain building.
 Introd..
APPLIED Geology
applies the principles of pure geology and other sciences to
understand the nature of the earth and to extract the natural
resources of the Earth
Some of the most common and important applied fields:
Economic Geology - deals with economic minerals and rocks
Mining Geology - deals with the techniques of extraction of the
economic minerals and rocks
Hydrogeology - deals with surface and underground water
Engineering Geology - applies the principles of Geology to Civil
Engineering works such as dams, roads etc
Geochemistry - studies the composition of the earth by applying the
principles of Chemistry
Geophysics - studies Earth's internal structure and processes by
applying the principles of physics
 Introd..
The Relation of Geology to other Sciences
The earth is studied by many science disciplines, which are
collectively called the " Earth Science"; amongst Geology is
the one and the major element.
Although there are many specializations, the four major
areas of study in earth science are:
Geology - deals with the materials of the earth, the
processes, which formed and have been changing it.
Astronomy - the study of cosmic objects, i.e. objects in the
universe beyond the earth's outer atmosphere.
Meteorology - the study of weather and climate conditions
and the process that causes it.
Oceanography - the study of the earth's oceans and seas
 Intr.
But these all are interrelated in essence
E.g. Geology depends on Astronomy to study the origin
of the earth, in the Universe and conversely Astronomy
depends on Geology to infer the composition and
structure of the cosmic bodies
Geology is also related with the natural science
disciplines of chemistry, physics, and biology.
So geology as a science can not stand alone but
depends on many other sciences and at the same time
geology enhances the achievement of other sciences.
 Cond.
Geology is commercially important for mineral and
hydrocarbon exploration
for evaluating water resources
is publicly important for the prediction and
understanding of natural hazards
the remediation of environmental problems, and for
providing insights into past climate change
plays an essential role in geotechnical engineering
is also a hobby for those who enjoy collecting various
rocks, minerals and/or fossils
CHAPTER - TWO

THE EARTH IN SPACE

 The Origin of the Universe
The Earth is a very minute part of the Solar
System, which in turn is a very small part of the
Universe.
The origin of the universe is under a considerable
debate, There are many theories which tried to
explain about the origin of the Universe among
which only one theory is popular = Big Bang
Theory
12 -15 billion years ago, a fireball (all matter and
energy concentrated), it exploded & all matter
and energy spreaded out in all directions.
 The Origin..
Cooled & condensed in to hydrogen clouds which were
later changed in to the present day galaxies.
No other theory which disproves it, but has many draw
backs, not fully explain all observed phenomena in the
Universe.
The Universe is known to be expanded, evidenced from
the Doppler's effect (Red Shift)phenomenon which led to
the assumption that this expansion must have started
from a single point and traced back to the fireball.
 The Origin.
The age of the Universe is assumed to be the age of the Big
Bang episode
The age is computed based on some astronomical evidences
The universe, no matter how it was formed, contains a very
large number of galaxies, including the Milky Way in which
the Solar System is located. So the Earth is a very minute
speck relative to the great dimension of the Universe.
 Cond..
Supports:

If the Big Bang did occur, all of the objects within the Universe
should be moving away from each other. In 1929, Edwin Hubble
documented that the galaxies in our Universe are indeed moving
away from each other.
If the Universe began with a Big Bang, extreme temperatures
should have caused 25 percent of the mass of the Universe to
become helium. This is exactly what is observed.
Matter in the Universe should be distributed homogeneously.
Astronomical observations from the Hubble Space Telescope do
indicate that matter in the Universe generally has a
homogeneous distribution.
 Origin of the Solar System

The Earth is a huge sphere of radius about 6400km, but a

small member of the solar system.
In dealing with the origin of the solar system, we are indirectly
dealing with the origin of the planet Earth.
Catastrophic Theories
This group of theories states that the sun and the planets
have a bi-parental origin (the planets were formed not at the
same time as the sun but from a material that was torn away
from the sun).
E.g. Encounter or Collision theory
 Cond
Gradualistic Theories
are those theories which propose the
formation of the planets naturally with the
sun (both the sun and the planets were
formed together at the same time).
E.g.Nebular Hypothesis
 Nebular theory
states that there existed a primordial, rotating cloud of dust
and gas (called Nebula) whose shape and internal motion
were determined by gravitational and rotational forces.
At some time, gravitation become the dominant factor:
contraction began and rotation speeded up leading the
cloud to flatten up into a disk.
Matter began to drift into the center accumulating into the
proto-sun.
The proto-sun collapsed under its own gravitation
becoming dense and opaque as the material was
compressed.
 The internal temperature rose to about 1,000,000 0c at
which point "Nuclear fusion " began.
Then the sun began to shine with the initiation of the
Thermonuclear Reactions (where molecules of
hydrogen are converted into helium atoms by
emanating vast amount of energy).
The disc gradually cooled while it spun off and various
solid compounds condensed out of the gas forming
small grains.
The grains gradually clumped together into small
chunks or planetisimals (little Planets) which finally
coalesced by the action of gravity forming the planets
 Cond.
Shows how forming planets drew the gas (nebula) to themselves
 Supportive evidences
the planets revolve around the sun in orbits
that lie close to a common plane. I.e the solar
system is basically disc shaped
The rotation of the sun and planets on their
axes also seems related to this disc shape
All the planets revolve counterclockwise
around the sun, and with the exception of
Uranus and Venus
 Contd.
each planet is a little less than twice as far
from the sun as its inward neighbor.
the sun contains 99.8% of the mass of the
solar system.
 Components of the SS
The Sun: the central body of the system. It is a huge
gaseous body, the source of the gravity and the
heat of the system.
The Planets
are 10 followers for the sun; solid, cold and rotate in
definite orbits around the sun
The Inner/Terrestrial/Earthlike planets
The Outer/Extraterrestrial/Jovian planets
 Cond
Image of the solar system
 Contd.
Mercury
the nearest to the sun
composed entirely of metals and has a very thin atmosphere of helium.
its surface temperature reaches 407 0c (day) to -173 0c(night)
Heavily cratered lightweight crust
Now geologically dead (no activity)
Venus
similar to Earth (size and shape) but differ in the nature of its atmosphere and current
geological conditions.
Wrapped in a heavy, poisonous, incredibly hot (475 0c) atmosphere, composed mostly of
corbondioxide and clouds of corrosive sulfuric acid droplets
Hell: a human standing on its surface would be crushed by the pressure, boil by the heat, and
eaten away by the sulfuric acid.
Evidences of volcanism, mountains, plateaus, plains and other evidences of a dynamic
surface.
 Cond..
Earth - a third planet from the sun
- composed of metal core and rock layers
- unique planet in the solar system (possibly due to its position)
- contains atmosphere of O2, N2, water vapor, and it's the only planet
where liquid water
and life exists (so far known)
Mars - the outer most of the terrestrial planets
- similar to Earth in composition (contains metals and rock layers)
- its atmosphere includes clouds and fogs
- most of its atmosphere - CO2 with small amounts of O2, and N2. It
also contains some
- experienced many of the same geological processes that shape the
earth
- amount of water vapor
- network of rivers and river valleys have left their traces.
 SS Component

outer (extraterrestrial) planets

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune
Jiant (major)
Not much known
generally composed of almost entirely of volatiles (H and He) which condense
to form ice
Very cool
Voluminous but lighter
have ring systems and many moons around them.
Pluto
Tiny planet
satellite captured from another system ( tilted oribit)
2003-UB313- is the newly discovered tenth planet in the solar system.
This new body, tentatively called 2003-UB313 (in July 31,2005), was originally
detected in 2003, but it was not regarded as a planet until scientists re-
analysed their data earlier 2005.
 The Planet-Followers: These are small followers for each
planet (e.g.: the Moon) solid, cold and rotate in definite
orbits around its planet.
The Asteroids: a group of cosmic debris that rotate in
definite orbit between Mars & Jupiter. It is thought they
are originated from a great explusion of a former planet.
They are assumed to be either remenant of a disintegrated
planet or original material of an aborted planet
They are ranging in size from a fraction of a mm(dust) to a
diameter of 1050km
When those asteroids revolve around the sun they are
attracted by the gravitational field of the inner planets
especially Mars, Earth, and the Moon. They strick earth and
usually observed during the night as shooting stars due to
frictional effect with earths atmosphere.
The survivors of this friction force may rich the earth's
surface and are termed as Meteorites.
 Ss Comp
The Meteorites:
Cosmic debris that have no definite orbit
usually hit the other cosmic bodies
when enter into the earths atmosphere they are burned and
explode leaving an illuminated tail
very rich in Ni and Fe.
The Comets:
huge bodies of solidified gases at the far outer parts of the solar
system
When come close to the sun, the outer parts of the gas-mass is
sublimated and start to give off flash fire that move backward as a
long tail when the comet goes onward.
The comets are found in the outer part of the solar system and are
fragmentary materials like the asteroids but composed of volatiles
like those of the Jovian planets.
The comets have their own defined orbit around the sun and are
observed from the Earth at regular time intervals.
Orbits of the Planets in Solar System
 EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH
How did Earth evolved from a rocky mass to a
living planet with continents, oceans, and an
atmosphere?
 Evolution..
Differentiation
Early melting began the process of differentiation
formation of Earth's crust and eventually of the
continents
brought lighter materials to the outer layers of the
Earth
initiated the escape of lighter gases from the interior
(the formation of the atmosphere and oceans)
Giant impact (30 to 65% of the Earth melted), forming
an outer layer hundreds of kms thick (magma ocean)
 Evolution
The interior to soft state, its components could
move around - heavy material sinking in to the
interior and lighter material floating towards the
surface
Heat radiate into space coming with lighter
matter
cooled and mostly solidified and was transformed
into a differentiated or zoned planet with three
main layers: a central core and an outer crust
separated by a mantle
 Evolution.
Earth's Core
Fe
Outer core , liquid
Inner core , solid due to high P
Earth's Crust
a thin outer layer ranging up to about 40 km in
thickness
Less dense materials
light materials with low melting temperatures
 Evolution.
Earth's Mantle
b/n the core and the crust
the bulk of the solid Earth
The mantle is the material left in the middle
zone after most of the heavy matter sank and
the light matter rose towards the surface
ranges from about 40 to 2900 km in depth
rock of intermediate density
 Evolution.
Chermically Earth contains about 90 naturally
occuring elements but 99% of its mass is made
up of only eight
And about 90% of Earth consists of only 4
elements ( Fe, O2, Si, and Mg).
35% of the earths mass is Fe but only 6% on
the crust. Why?
 Evolution.
Formation of Earth's Continents, Oceans, and Atmosphere
Internal and external heat engines
Continents
Continental growth began soon after differentiation, and it
has continued throughout the geologic time
Magma floated up from the molten interior of the Earth to
the surface, where it cooled and solidified to form a crust of
rock
This melting and solidification repeatedly, allowing the
lighter material to separate gradually from the heavier ones
and float to the top to form the primitive nucleus of the
continents
 Evolution.
Rocks decomposed & desintegrated
Water, wind, and ice then loosened and
moved rocky debris to low-lying places, where
it accumulated in thick layer, forming beaches,
deltas, and the floors of adjacent seas.
As this process repeated countless cycles,
continents formed.
 Evolution.
Oceans and atmosphere
formed from water and gases that boiled off during heating
and differentiation
Water Vapour, O2, H2, C & N2 chemically bounded in
certain minerals
Earth heated and its materials partially melted, water vapor
and other gases were freed and carried to the surface by
magmas and released though volcanic activity.
The gases released from volcanoes 4 billion years ago
probably consisted of the same substance that are expelled
from present day volcanoes(Water vapor, H2, Co2, N2, and
a few other gases)
 Evolution.
The earliest atmosphere thus was entirely
different from the one we live in now, which
consists primarily of nitrogen and oxygen
The production of significant amounts of free
O2 & its persistence in the atmosphere
probably came about only after life had
evolved atleast to the complexity of
photosynthetic algae, simple one celled form
of life.
 Age of The Earth
If the nebular theory is correct, the planets should have the same
age as the sun.
Radioactive dating of samples is the most accurate way to find the
age of the celestial bodies. That is by measuring the amount of
radioactive elements remaining in the sample.
So far the Earth, the moon, and meteorites have been dated in this
way
The oldest dated rock on the Earth aged 3.9 billion years old
On the moon 4.48 billion years old rocks are dated
The oldest meteorite so far dated is 4.6 billion years old.
This age is widely accepted as the age of the solar system

 Composition & Internal Structure of

the Earth
Earth is a differentiated planet, according to
density
layered like an onion
Data were collected from bore holes (only less
than 12 km deep)
structural deformation and erosion rarely
exposes rocks formed more than 20-25km below
the surface
volcanic eruptions provide small samples of
materials that come from greater depths,
possibly as much as 200 km
 Composition & internal.
Aside from these limited data, we have no
direct knowledge about the nature of the
Earth's interior
So how do we determine the structure and
composition of the Earth's interior?
 Composition & internal.
The evidence comes largely from the studies
of the physical properties of the planet itself-
density, the way it transmits seismic waves,
the nature of its magnetic fields and from
comparison with meteorites.
Composition :
Crust
Mantle
Core
 Composition & internal.
Crust:
it is the outermost layer extending from the solid
surface down to the first major discontinuity(the
Mohorovicic discontinuity) of the lithosphere
its density ranges from 2.7 (continental crust) to
3.2 (oceanic crust)
made up of light weight materials (silicate rocks)
of two types; continental and oceanic crust
Composition & internal.
 Composition & internal.
continental crust:
is thicker: as much as 70 km
composed, generally, of light weight rocks such as
granite
includes the oldest rocks of the crust
average density of 2.7 g/cm3
oceanic crust:
is thinner, about 8 km thick
is dark, dense volcanic rock(basalt)
younger and relatively undiformed
average density is 3.0 g/cm3
 Composition & internal.
The Mantle:
covers the core
constitute the major(great) bulk of the Earth
making up 82% of the volume and 68% of the
mass of the Earth
it is largely composed of magnesium and iron
silicates
it extends from 50km to 2900 km in to the inner
Earth
its density ranges from 3.4 to 5.5g/cm3
 Composition & internal.
The Core:
is the central mass extending from 2900km up
to the center, 6400km(7,000km in diameter)
mostly made of iron with some nickel
average density is 10.79 g/cm3
constitute 16% by volume and 32% by mass of
the Earth
 Internal Layering Based on Physical
Properties
Lithosphere:
solid
strong and rigid
outer part
contains the crust and the upper most part of
the mantle.
It extends 100 km from the surface
Internal layering.
 Internal Layering..
Asthenosphere:
Weak sphere
a major zone within the upper mantle where
temperature and pressure are at just the right
balance so that part of the material melts
The rocks lose much of their strength and
become soft plastic and flow like warm tar
is a distinctive zone in the upper mantle and is
as much as 100km thick.
 Internal Layering..
Mesosphere:
zone is stronger and much rigid than the
asthenosphere b/c the high pressure at this
depth offsets the effect of high temperature
is the region b/n the asthenosphere and the
core.
 Internal Layering..
The Core:
it marks both a change in physical property
and composition
On the basis of physical properties the core is
divided into the outer and inner core
the outer core is liquid while the inner core is
solid. Why?
 Internal Layering.
Inner core is solid because pressure is too
great for iron to melt at Earths current
temperature.
Heat lose from the core and the rotation of
Earth probably causes the liquid outer core to
circulate and its circulation generates Earth's
magnetic field.
 PLATE TECTONICS
Introduction
Plate Tectonics is called the Unifying Theory because it explains a
broad range of phenomena and unifies much of the geological
thoughts.
Geologists believe that earths lithosphere is broken into about a
dozen plates.
These plates are slide by each other, collide with each other, or
separate (moving away) from each other when they float over the
Astenosphere.
Although it feels solid and hard beneath our feet, the outer surface
of the Earth is a thin crust of fragile rock, fractured like the cracked
shell of an egg.
The pieces of the shell are Earth's tectonic plates -- there are 12
major ones -- and they float across a layer of soft rock like rafts in a
stream, their motions driven by forces generated deep in the Earth.
 Cond..
lithospheric plates
 Cond
The theory of plate tectonics describes or
explains; the movement of plates and the
forces acting between them
the distribution of many large scale geologic
features such as mountain chains, structures
on the sea floor, volcanoes, and earth quakes
which result from movements at plate
boundaries.
 Plate Tectonics and Planetary History
Continental Drift Hypothesis
The phrase continental drift means the large-
scale movements of continents over the globe
It has long history
 Cond..
The continental drift hypothesis was first proposed by Alfred
Wegener, who argued his case largely on the basis of
circumstantial evidence.
According to Wegeners hypothesis, some 200 million years ago
all of the continents were assembled together into the super
continent called Pangaea (it means all lands).
At that time 40% of the earths surface is covered by Pangaea
and the rest 60% is covered by Panthalasa (it means all seas).
divided in to two large land masses: the Gondwana land;
consisting of the present day Africa, S. America, Antarctica,
Australia, & India and the Laurasia plate; consisting of the
present day N. America, Europe, Greenland and Asia (except
India)
 180 million years ago, South America & Africa
separated from the rest of the Gondwana land.
180 my to 135 my ago, Africa started separation
from South America that is Atlantic ocean began
to open in between Africa and South America.
135 my to 65 MY ago, Australia separate from
Antarctica and Madagascar separated from
Africa.
Then after continuous changes from 65 my to
present, the present day configuration of the
continents were formed.
 Cond.
Pangaea and Laurasia
 Cond..
separation of Pangaea into the present day
configuration of the continents
 Based on this, in the future 50 million years from now,
it is possible to predict the following.
Mediterranean sea will be closed.
Australia will attach to Asia.
East Africa will be separated from the main Africa.
Peaks such as Mountain Everest have risen to heights
of more than 9 km.
Atlantic Ocean increases and will be changed into new
Panthalasa, and in general will occur a new
environment
 The evidences or observations used by Wegener and others to
support the hypothesis of continental drift
The fit of the shorelines of continents
The appearance of the same rock sequences and mountain
ranges of the same age on continents now widely separated
The matching of the glacial deposits and palaeoclimatic zones
The similarities of the many extinct plant and animal groups
whose fossil remains are found today on widely separated
continents
 continental fit of Africa and the South America continents
 The appearance of the same rock sequences
 Appalachian & Caledonian Mountain belts of the same age (a)
at present (b) in the past
 Shows the distribution of similar fossils
 Glaciated area, arrows indicate the direction of glacial
movement based on striations preserved in bedrock
 If the continents were cold enough so that ice covered the southern
continents, why is no evidence found for ice in the northern
continents?
A fatal weakness in Wegener's theory was that it could not
satisfactorily answer the most fundamental question raised by his
critics: What kind of forces could be strong enough to move such
large masses of solid rock over such great distances?
he suggested that the continents simply plowed through the ocean
floor
but Harold Jeffreys, a noted English Geophysicist, argued correctly
that it was physically impossible for a large mass of solid rock to
plow through the ocean floor without breaking up.
 Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis
Harry Hess proposed that new ocean floor is formed at the rift of
mid-ocean ridges.
The ocean floor, and the rock beneath it, is produced by magma
that rises from deeper levels.
Hess suggested that the ocean floor moved laterally away from the
ridge and plunged into an oceanic trench along the continental
margin.
Continents are no longer thought to plow through oceanic crust but
are considered to be part of plates that move on the soft, plastic
Astenosphere.
A driving force, convection currents, moved the plates.
Technological advances and detailed studies of the ocean floor,
both unavailable during Wegener's time, allowed Hess and Dietz to
generate the new hypotheses.
 The Birth of Plate Tectonics
arose out of two separate geological observations: continental
drift,, and seafloor spreading.
The theory itself was developed during the late 1960s and has since
almost universally been accepted by scientists and has
revolutionized the Earth sciences (akin to the discovery of the
structure of the atom for physics the development of the periodic
table for chemistry, the discovery of the genetic code for genetics,
or evolution in biology).
Continental drift was hotly debated off and on for decades
following Wegener's death.
However, beginning in the 1950s, a wealth of new evidence
emerged to refresh the debate about Wegener's challenging ideas
and their implications.
 In particular, four major scientific developments urged the
formulation of the plate-tectonics theory
Demonstration of the ruggedness and youth of the ocean
floor
Confirmation of repeated reversals of the Earth magnetic
field in the geologic past
Emergence of the seafloor-spreading hypothesis and
associated recycling of oceanic crust; and
Precise documentation that the world's earthquake and
volcanic activity is concentrated along oceanic trenches and
submarine mountain ranges.
 Why Should Plates Move?
 many unanswered questions remain: How many convection
cells exist?
Where and how do they originate? What is their structure?
Convection cannot take place without a source of heat. Heat
within the Earth comes from two main sources: radioactive
decay and residual heat.
How and why the escape of interior heat becomes
concentrated in certain regions to form convection cells
remains a mystery
 Eventually the Earth, too, will lose so much heat that
its interior will stop convecting.
Earthquake and volcanic activity will then cease.
No new mountains will form, and the geologic cycle of
mountain building, erosion, sedimentation, and soil
formation will be disrupted and also will cease.
Exactly how a cooled-down Earth will change surface
conditions -- and whether our planet will still be
habitable -- nobody knows.
Fortunately, these changes will not happen for many
billions of years!
 Plate Movements And Their Boundaries
The plate boundaries are the most geologically active regions
on Earth.
new land is born of the Earth, and old land is consumed.
Hot springs spew out mineral-rich waters, volcanoes erupt,
and earthquakes tremble -- resulting in devastating tsunamis,
floods, and mudslides.
They are associated with different types of surface
phenomena.
 There are three types of plate boundaries, characterized by the
relative movement of the plates to each other.
Divergent boundaries occur where two plates slide apart from each
other.
Convergent boundaries (or active margins) occur where two plates
slide towards each other commonly forming either a subduction
zone (if one plate moves underneath the other) or an orogenic belt
(if the two simply collide and compress).
Transform boundaries occur where plates slide, or perhaps more
accurately grind, past each other along transform faults.
The relative motion of the two plates is therefore either sinistral or
dextral.
Plate boundary zones occur in more complex situations where
three or more plates meet and exhibit a mixture of the above three
boundary types.
 Divergent (Constructive) Boundaries
At divergent boundaries, two plates move apart from each
other and the space that this creates is filled with new crustal
material sourced from molten magma that forms below
Eg. At MORs
 Convergent (Destructive) Plate Boundaries
The nature of a convergent boundary depends on the type of
lithosphere in the plates that are colliding.
Where a dense oceanic plate collides with a less-dense
continental plate, the oceanic plate is typically thrust
underneath, forming a subduction zone.
At the surface, the topographic expression is commonly an
oceanic trench on the ocean side and a mountain range on
the continental side.
 oceanic-continental convergent boundaries
 Where two continental plates collide the plates either
crumple and compress or one plate burrows under or
(potentially) overrides the other.
Either action will create extensive mountain ranges.
The most dramatic effect seen is where the northern margins
of the Indian sub continental plate is being thrust under a
portion of the Eurasian plate, lifting it and creating the
Himalayas.
 continental-continental convergent boundaries
 When two oceanic plates converge they form an island arc as
one oceanic plate is subducted below the other. A good
example of this type of plate convergence would be Japan.
Oceanic-Oceanic convergent plate boundaries
 Transform (Conservative) boundaries
The left- or right-lateral motion of one plate against
another along transform or strike slip faults can cause
highly visible surface effects.
B/c of friction, the plates cannot simply slide past each
other.
Rather, stress builds up in both plates and when it reaches
a level that exceeds the slipping-point of rocks on either
side of the transform-faults the accumulated potential
energy is released as strain, or motion along the fault.
The massive amounts of energy that are released are the
cause of earthquakes, a common phenomenon along
transform boundaries.
 A good example of this type of plate boundary is the San
Andreas Fault complex, which is found in the western coast of
North America and is one part of a highly complex system of
faults in this area
Transform faults where plates slide past each other
 Cond.
Divergent boundaries can also create massive fault zones in
the oceanic ridge system.
Spreading is generally not uniform, so where spreading rates
of adjacent ridge blocks are different massive transform faults
occur.
These are the fracture zones that are a major source of
submarine Eqs.
 CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS OF THE EARTH
The materials are minerals and rocks which in turn are made up of
atoms and elements.
Atoms:
atom is the smallest fraction of an element that can exist and still
shows the characterstics of that element.
The main building blocks of an atom are protons, neutrons and
electrons.
A typical atom consists of a nucleus of protons and neutrons and a
cloud of electrons surounding the nucleus.
The distinguishing features of an atom of a given element is the
number of protons in the nucleus. The number of electrons and
neutrons in an atom of a given element can vary with in certain
limits but the number of protons is constant.
 Cond.
Normally atoms are electrically neutral because
they have one negatively charged electron for
each positively charged proton.
Electrically charged atoms (ions) are produced by
the gain or loss of electrons.
Isotopes, which are varieties of a given atom
(element), are the result of differences in the
number of neutrons in the nucleus.
Atoms combine, mostly through ionic or covalent
bonding to form minerals.
 Cond.
Elements
The major elements
are present in large quantities in the Earth's crust.
constitute the rock forming minerals.
8 elements, are so common that they make up 99% of the weight of
the Earth's crust.
O=47%, Si=28%, Al=8%, Fe=5%, Ca=3.5%, Na=3%,
K =2.5%, Mg=2%, & Others=1%.
By far the greatest percentage of the crust is made up of si
and O2. These 2 Es readily combine with each other, and with
other elements to form the commonest mineral group on
earth: silicate minerals.
Silicates make up over 98% ( by weight) of the crustal rocks.
 Cond
The minor elements
are much less common in the Earth's crust.
are rare, they amount in total 1% by weight of
the crust.
contains elements vital for industry.
Copper (Cu) = 0.007%, Uranium (U) = 0.0004%
Gold (Au) = 0.0000005%.
 Cond
Chemical bonding
Ionic bonding
Covalent Bonding
Metallic Bond

 Cond
crystals and minerals
matter exists in either gas, liquid or solid form
A solid can be crystalline or non-crystalline
But what is crystal, crystalline and non-
crystalline?
 Cond.
Crystal
the building block of every solid ( and every matter as a
whole) are atoms and ions
The external form of solids is dependent on the internal
arrangement of these atoms and ions.
If the atoms and ions have a regular internal arrangement, the
solid will have a regular geometric shape or form.
a 3-dimentional solid which is bounded by symmetrically
arranged faces having a regular geometric shape which is an
outward expression of the regular internal arrangement of the
atoms and ions that make up the solid.
 Cond
Crystalline Solid
Any solid having a regular internal
arrangement of atoms and ions. But
depending on the conditions of growth, this
regular internal arrangement may or may not
be expressed in a regular shape of the solids.
E.g. Rock salt
 Cond.
Non-Crystalline (Amorphous) Solids
is any solid having a random internal arrangement of
its constituent atoms and ions, with no external
crystal structure.
E.g. Graphite
is similar to a liquid in that the atoms are randomly
arranged, but to a solid in that the atoms are strongly
held together and can't move freely
E.g. Glass( super cooled solid)
 Cond.
A Mineral
a mineral is defined to be a naturally occurring element or chemical
compound possessing a definite crystalline structure based on regular
arrangement of the constituent atoms and ions
A substance is said to be a mineral if:
it is natural
it is inorganic
it is structurally homogeneous solid with definite crystalline structure.
It has a well defined regular internal arrangement of its constituent atoms
and ions.
It has definite chemical composition which can be expressed by a
chemical formula.
It has a definite set of physical properties that are fixed with in certain
limits. E.g hardness, density, color, etc.
 Cond.
Water in the form of ice is a mineral but not at its liquid state.
Coal and petroleum, although natural are not minerals, for they are
organic in nature. They are however, called mineral fuels.
Most minerals are compounds of two or more elements, but a few
such as sulfur, graphite, diamond, native gold, iodine, etc are single
elements.
A certain mineral anywhere in the world has the same crystalline,
chemical and physical properties.
About 2000 different minerals are so far identified in the Earth. But
among these lot only 20 common ones make up the bulk
composition of the Earth.
The abundance of minerals more or less reflects the quantities of
the component elements that are available for its formation in the
earth.
E.g. oxygen and silicon
 Cond.
ORIGIN OF MINERALS
from the matter that gave rise to the planet itself
minerals are originated from the elements which are in turn,
originated from the original stellar matter
are either primary or secondary in origin
The primary minerals are necessarily the product of consolidation
of magmas under suitable conditions
E.g. all minerals constituting the igneous rocks
The secondary minerals have crystallized from the solutions
containing the relevant ions
E.g. halite, borax, etc
Metamorphism of the country rock, due to change in temperature,
pressure or stress, may also cause the formation of new minerals
under appropriate conditions. E.g. kyanite, Sillimanite, Staurollite
 Cond.
Formation of Minerals
How do minerals form?
are formed by the process of crystallization (the growth of a
solid from a material whose constituent atoms can come
together in the proper chemical proportions and crystalline
arrangement).
E.g. Diamond (covalent), NaCl (ionic)
Crystallization starts with the formation of microscopic single
crystal bodies whose boundaries are natural flat (plane)
surfaces called crystal faces, are the defining external
characteristic of a crystal
The crystal faces of a mineral are the external expression of
the mineral's internal atomic structure.
 Cond.
During crystallization, the initially microscopic crystals grow
larger, maintaining their crystal faces as long as they are
free to grow.
Large crystals with well-defined faces form when growth is
slow and steady and space is adequate to allow growth
with out interference from other crystals nearby.
Most large crystals form in open spaces in rocks, such as
open fractures or cavities.
Glassy materials, which solidify from liquids so quickly that
they lack any internal atomic order, do not form crystals
with plane faces.
found as masses with curved, irregular surfaces.
E.g. volcanic glass.
 Cond
When do Minerals form?
Lowering the temperature of a liquid below its freezing point is one
way to start the process of crystallization
Magma, a hot molten liquid rock, crystallizes solid material when it
cools.
As a magma falls below its melting point, which may be 10000c
crystals of silicate minerals such as olivine or feldspar begin to form.
During precipitation, as liquids evaporate from a
solution. E.g. Deposits of halite from hot, arid bays or
arms of the ocean.
when atoms and ions in solids become mobile and
rearrange themselves at the high temperatures. E.g. mica
 Cond.
Mineral Groups