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Examples
Example one
Example 2
20 pre-school children has been tested their HB level here is
their results, construct ungrouped frequency distribution.
11 15
10 7
9 8
16 6
15 12
9 15
12 14
13 16
14 13
7 10
Example 3
The blood glucose level, in milligrams per deciliter, for 30
patients is shown below. Construct a frequency distribution
for the data set, using six classes.
55 115 111
63 97 90
84 81 82
Time series graph
Examples
US labor force
women 11 10 8 9 11 15
men 34 28 18 15 17 22
Chapter 3
Examples
The mean
Mean of grouped data
The median
The mode in a grouped data
Mode = mean-3(mean-medium)
Chapter 4
Examples
Range
The range for a set of data items is the difference between the
largest and smallest values.
Although the range is the easiest of the numerical measures
of variability to compute, it is not widely used because it is
based on only two of the items in the data set and thus is
influenced too much by extreme data values.
Range = max - min
Interquartile Range
Q1= ¼ N
Q3= ¾ N
Exmaple one
Standard Deviation =
The two commonly used indicators of variability are the
variance and the standard deviation.
•Higher values for both of these indicators indicate a
larger amount of variability than do lower numbers.
• Zero stands for no variability at all (e.g., for the data 3,
3, 3, 3, 3, 3, the variance and standard deviation will
equal zero).
•When you have no variability, the numbers are a
constant (i.e., the same number).
•The variance tells you (exactly) the average
deviation from the mean, in "squared units."
•The standard deviation is just the square root of the
variance (i.e., it brings the "squared units" back to
regular units).
•The standard deviation tells you (approximately) how
far the numbers tend to vary from the mean. (If the
standard deviation is 7, then the numbers tend to be
about 7 units from the mean. If the standard deviation
is 1500, then the numbers tend to be about 1500
units from the mean.)
If data are normally distributed, then an easy rule to apply to the
data is what we call “the 68, 95, 99.7 percent rule." That is . . .
examples
Normal distribution
Example
Find the area under standard normal distribution for
each of the following as percentage.
Between Z = 0 and Z = 1.5
Between Z=0 and Z=-2
To the right of Z = 2
To the left of Z = 2
Between Z= 1.5 and 2.5
Between Z= - 1.5 and -2.5
Between Z = 1.5 and – 1.5
Z score
Using the data presented in Table, find the percentage of
students whose scores range from the mean (70.07) to 85,
the SD is 10.27
(1) Convert 85 to a Z score:
Z = (85-70.07)/10.27 = 1.45
2) Look up the Z score (1.45) in Column A, finding the
proportion (.4265)
(3) Convert the proportion (.4265) to a percentage (42.65%); this is the
percentage of students scoring between the mean and 85 in the course.
Finding the Area Between the Mean and a
Negative Z Score
z = individual Z score
xi = individual observed value, for example, exam mark
= mean for the set of data
s = standard deviation.
A positive Z score means that the observed data is above the
mean. A negative Z score means that the observed data is
below the mean.
Student One:
Mathematics exam mark of 60%. Mean 50%. Standard
deviation = 5.6
Student Two:
English exam mark of 70%. Mean 66%. Standard deviation =
10.5
Student One’s mathematics exam mark converted into a Z
score:
Example
Converting a Z-score to a “raw” score:
The length of Ellen’s pregnancy results in a Z-score of –1.25
How many days was she pregnant?
X z
Z = -1.25 = 266 = 16
X = 266 + (-1.25)(16)
X = 246 days
Ellen’s pregnancy was shorter than average. This was expected as
her Z-score was NEGATIVE
Example 3
xi x
zi
s
= 25 -30 = -1.25
4
Look the table: the value in the table between Z = 0 and Z =
-1.25 is 0.3944
Therefore the apian relief reduced the apian for 0.3944 X 40
= 15.7 approximately 16 patients
Determining the normality
A normally shaped or bell-shaped distribution is only one of many
shapes that a distribution can assume; however, it is very important
since many statistical methods require that the distribution of values
(shown in subsequent chapters) be normally or approximately
normally shaped.
There are several ways statisticians check for normality. The easiest
way is to draw a histogram for the data and check its shape.
If the histogram is not approximately bell shaped, then the data are not
normally distributed.
Skewness can be checked by using the Pearson co efficient of skewness
(PC) also called Pearson’s index of skewness. The formula is
If the index is greater than or equal to 1 or less than or equal
to -1, it can be concluded that the data are significantly
skewed.
In addition, the data should be checked for outliers by using
the formula for detecting the outliers.
A survey of 18 high-technology firms showed the number of
days’ inventory they had on hand. Determine if the data are
approximately normally distributed.
5 29 34 44 45 63 68 74 74 81 88 91 97 98 113 118 151 158
4
Since the histogram is approximately bell-shaped, we can say that the distribution is
approximately normal.
Chapter 8
Examples
Example 1
Example 2
Z test
Steps for solving hypothesis testing
using z test
Example one
t Test for a Mean
When the population standard deviation is unknown, the z test is not normally used for
testing hypotheses involving means. A different test, called the t test, is used.
The distribution of the variable should be approximately normal.
the t distribution is similar to the standard normal distribution in the
following ways.
1. It is bell-shaped.
2. It is symmetric about the mean.
3. The mean, median, and mode are equal to 0 and are located at the center of the
distribution.
4. The curve never touches the x axis.