Deductive and Inductive Argument

•Two classes of arguments

• A deductive argument is an argument in
which the premises are claimed to support the
conclusion in such a way that it is impossible
for the premises to be true and the conclusion
false.
• In such arguments the conclusion is claimed
to follow necessarily from the premises.
• Argument moves from ‘general’ to
‘particular’.
Deduction Indicators
• ‘‘necessarily’’ ‘‘definitely’’ ‘‘certainly,’’
‘‘absolutely’’
Ex.
All men are mortal.
Ram is a man
Therefore, Ram is mortal.
• In inductive arguments the conclusion is
claimed to follow only probably from the
premises.
• Reasoning moves from ‘particular’/
‘specific’ to ‘general’.
Induction Indicators
• ‘‘probably’’ ‘‘improbable,’’ ‘‘plausible,’’
‘‘implausible,’’ ‘‘likely,’’
• Ex:
• Crow is a bird and it can fly.
sparrow is a bird and it can fly.
Therefore, all birds can fly.

Note that the phrase ‘‘it must be the case that’’

is ambiguous; ‘‘must’’ can indicate either
probability or necessity).

Thus, deductive arguments are those that

involve necessary reasoning, and inductive
arguments are those that involve
probabilistic reasoning
• Differences between Deductive Reasoning
and Inductive Reasoning
a. General to specific (usually not always)
b. Purpose is to reach a conclusion that can’t be false
c. Applies known laws to specific circumstances
d. Thinking makes inferences about the relationship
of claims
e. Truth of premises is assumed or determined by
reasoning
f. Conclusion is final.
g. Indicator words –necessarily, certainly, absolutely,
definitely
h. If the premises are true or assumed to be true and
the reasoning valid, the conclusion cant be false
• Inductive Reasoning
a. Specific to general(usually not always)
b. Purpose is to reach a conclusion for testing and
application
c. Discovers new laws
d. Thinking guided by theories, observation, research,
investigation. Data are collected and analyzed.
e. Tests verify measure of truth in terms of reliability,
accuracy, applicability,
f. Conclusion is a hypothesis or statement of probability
g. Indicator words- probable, improbable, likely, unlikely
h. Even if the premises are true the conclusion is only
probable and could even be false. More data or major
change could call for further testing
 Inductive or Deductive?
A. Most corporation lawyers are conservatives.
Miriam Graf is a corporation lawyer.
Therefore Miriam Graf is probably a
conservative.
B. All the pears in that basket are ripe.
All these pears are from that basket.
All these pears are therefore ripe.
C. A was a dictator and was ruthless.
B was a dictator and was ruthless.
C is a dictator. Therefore C is probably ruthless.
 Validity and truth
• A successful deductive argument is valid
• If the conclusion follows with logical
necessity from the premises, we say that
the argument is valid. Logical necessity is
never achieved by inductive arguments.

• Truth and falsity are attributes of

individual propositions or statements;
validity and invalidity are attributes of
arguments.
 Relations between Truth and Validity
1. Some valid arguments contain only true
propositions-true premises and a true
conclusion. Eg.
All mammals have lungs.
All whales are mammals.
Therefore all whales have lungs.
2. Some valid arguments contain only false
propositions. Eg.
All four-legged creatures have wings.
All spiders have four legs.
Therefore all spiders have wings.
3. Some invalid arguments contain only true
propositions- all their premises are true and their
conclusions are true as well.
If I owned all the gold in Fort Knox, then I would be
wealthy
I don’t own all the gold in Fort Knox.
Therefore I am not wealthy.
4. Some invalid arguments contain only true
premises and have a false conclusion. Eg.
If Bill Gates owned all the gold in Fort Knox, then
Bill Gates would be wealthy.
Bill Gates doesn’t own all the gold in Fort Knox.
Therefore Bill Gates is not wealthy.
5. Some Valid arguments have false premises and a
true conclusion:
All fishes are mammals.
All whales are fishes.
Therefore all whales are mammals.

6. Some invalid arguments also have false promises

and a true conclusion. (3 and 6 taken together, if
this situation prevails we cant say whether it is
valid or invalid.
All mammals have wings.
All whales have wings.
Therefore all whales are mammals.
7. Some invalid arguments contain all false
propositions-false premises and a false
conclusion.
All mammals have wings.
All whales have wings.
Therefore all mammals are whales.
 Valid or invalid?
a. All mammals suckle their young.
Human suckle their young.
Hence, humans are mammals.