Introduction ship design

Engineering
1. Ships by Configurations
 Surface displacement:
Conventional ships (single hull); Catamaran (double hull, large deck area,
small displacement, excellent stability).
 Near (above) Surface:
Air cushion vehicles; Hydrofoils and planning hull craft (small
displacement, high speed)
 Submerged:
Submersibles; submarines; Underwater habitats; Submerged buoys.
 Semi submersibles:
Very deep, small water plane
 Bottom supported:
Temporary & Permanent jack-up;
Types
Small Water-plane Area Twin-Hull (SWATH)
Ferry (Catamaran, or SWATH)
Tri-maran Sailboat
View from the below
• Rules and Regulations
 The rules and regulations are issued by organizations which may
be divided into three categories:
• Classification societies: have established standards of
construction by the production of rules which have done much to
ensure the safety of ships. (ABS, DNV, BV)
• Governmental Authorities: concern for the safety of ships and
the well being of all who sail the ships (behavior of the people).
(Coast Guard)
• International Authorities, IMO (International Maritime
Organization)
Basic Topics of Naval Architecture
• Hull: Hydrostatic, hydrodynamic performance (Resistance)*
• Structure: Strength of hull**
• Machinery and Propulsion: Main engine** & propellers*
• Ship Control: (maneuvering, sea keeping)**
• Deck Machinery**
• Navigation: Sensors & Radar**
• Communications**
• Damage Control:**
• Rigging and Mooring:*
• Economic feasibility:**
Definition (Terminology):
•Principal Dimensions (length, breadth, depth etc) -Length.
• Lbp ( or Lpp)- Length between two perpendiculars
• FP – Forward perpendicular (vertical line through intersection of stem and waterline (w.l).)
• AP – Backward perpendicular (vertical line through the center of rudder pintle)
• Loa – Overall Length
• Lwl – Waterline Length (calculation length)
Sheer is the height measured between deck at side and base line.

A.P Forward Sheer

F.P.
After Sheer
W.L.

Amid Ship
Lbp

Lwl

Loa
•Definition (Terminology):
•Principal Dimensions
-Breadth, depth & draft.
• Breadth (moulded) (inside of plate on one side to another side)
• Breadth maximum
• Depth (measured at midship)
• Camber – the rise of the deck at the centerline. 2% of breadth
• Bilge radius
• Rise of Floor
• Flat of keel (thicker plate)
• Tumber home
• Rake of stem
• Draught and trim
 Breadth Extreme
Camber

w.l. Deck
Fonder
Breadth
Depth moulded
Moulded
Draft (d)
Centerline
Bilge radius

Rise of Floor Base Line (Top of

Flat of Keel Flate keel)

Mid Cross Section of a ship

 If W.L. is parallel to the baseline (keel line), the ship is floating evenly.
 If not parallel, the ship has a trim.
o Trim = da – df
o Trim (in radians) = (da – df )/ L
o Average draft = (da + df )/ 2
 Free board (f.b) is the distance measured downwards from the deck to the
W.L.
 Usually f.b. is minimum at midship
 Minimum f.b is required by International Law.
•Line Drawing:
Lines drawing mainly consists of three plan views
1.Sheer plane (Buttock plane, Buttock lines)
– parallel to the longitudinal central plane
– (2m, 4m, etc are the distances from the center plane)

2.Half-Breadth plane (Water plane, Waterline planes):

– parallel to the base plane
– (2m, 4m, ….are the distance form the base plane)
3.Body Plan (Ordinate station, Transverse section,
– 0-10 bow stern (US), 10-0 (UK)):
– parallel to the mid-section (# of stations indicated the distance from the mid-
section or bow).
•Diagonals (Bilge Diagonal)
– Fair form and fairness of line, checking the consistency of point,
smoothness of lines
•Table of Offsets
Line Drawing
• Hull characteristics (coeff.)

• Displacement and Weight Relationship

B (buoyancy) = W (weight). (conventional ship)

 – displacement volume B= Δ= γ

Appendage volume ≈ 1% 
Hull characteristics coefficients (non-dimensional)

- Coefficient of Form ( Fatness of a hull)

Block Coefficient CB 
CB 
LBT
where L= Lpp or Lbp and T = Draft
CB 0.38~0.90 even bigger

- Midship Section Coefficient

CM = immersed area of mishap section (A) / (BT)
0.67~0.98
-Prismatic or Longitudinal Coefficient: 0.55~0.80

  CB
CP   
L  A L  B  T  CM CM

-Waterplane Coefficient
area of water plane
CWP  0.67 - 0.87
LB
where L--Length of Load water plane
B = Beam of W.P.
-Displacement /Length Ratio  CB LBT BT
3
 3
 CB
L L LL
-Breadth /Length Ratio : B
L

-Draft/Length Ratio T
L

T
-Draft/Breadth Ratio
B

-These coefficients are related to the resistance and

stability of the ship and can be used to estimate
them empirically.
•Important Hydro-Static Curves or Relations
(see Figure)
• Displacement Curves
– (displacement [molded, total] vs. draft, weight [SW, FW] vs. draft (T))
• Coefficients Curves
– (CB , CM , CP , CWL, vs. T)
• VCB (KB, ZB):
– Vertical distance of Center of Buoyancy (C.B) to the baseline vs. T
• LCB (LCF, XB):
– Longitudinal Distance of C.B or floatation center (C.F) to the mid-ship vs. T
 • Stability
• A floating body reaches to an equilibrium
state, if
1. its weight = the buoyancy
2. the line of action of these two forces become collinear.
The three equilibrium :
unstable ,neutrally stable or stable equilibrium
• Unstable equilibrium:
– if it is slightly displaced form its equilibrium position and tends to
move farther away from this position.
• Neutral equilibrium:
– if it is displaced slightly from this position and will remain in the new
position.
• Stable equilibrium:
– if it is slightly displaced from its equilibrium position and will return
to that position.
 • Motion of a Ship:
6 degrees of freedom
- Surge
- Sway
- Heave
- Roll
- Pitch
- Yaw

Translation Rotation
Axis

x Longitudinal Surge Neutral S. Roll S. NS. US

y Transverse Sway Neutral S. Pitch S.

z Vertical Heave S. (for sub, N.S.) Yaw NS

 Righting & Heeling Moments

A ship or a submarine is designed to float in the

upright position.

• Righting Moment: exists at any angle of

inclination where the forces of weight and buoyancy
act to move the ship toward the upright position.

• Heeling Moment: exists at any angle of inclination

where the forces of weight and buoyancy act to
move the ship away from the upright position.
For a displacement ship,

W.L

G---Center of Gravity, B---Center of Buoyancy

M--- Transverse Metacenter,

If M is above G, we will have a righting moment, and
if M is below G, then we have a heeling moment.
For submarines (immersed in water)

If B is above G, we have righting moment

If B is below G, we have heeling moment
 Upsetting Forces (overturning moments)

• Beam wind, wave & current pressure

• Lifting a weight (when the ship is loading or unloading in the

harbor.)

• Offside weight (C.G is no longer at the center line)

• The loss of part of buoyancy due to damage (partially flooded,

C.B. is no longer at the center line)

• Turning

• Grounding
Static Stability & Dynamical Stability

Static Stability: Studying the magnitude of the

righting moment given the inclination (angle) of the
ship*.
(That is, the rolling velocity and energy are not
considered.)

Dynamic Stability**: Calculating the amount of work

done by the righting moment given the inclination of
the ship.
• Static Stability
1. The initial stability (aka stability at small
inclination) &,
2. the stability at large inclinations.
• The initial stability: studies the right moments or right
arm at small inclination angles (< 5 degree).
• The stability at large inclination (angle): computes the
right moments (or right arms) as function of the inclination
angle, up to a limit angle at which the ship may lose its
stability (capsizes). (Cross curves of stability (see Fig.
6-7 at pp 187 (old version pp 156) & Curves of Static
Stability (see Fig. 6-8 at pp 187 (old version pp157) )

The initial stability is a special case of the latter.

Initial stability
• Righting Arm: A symmetric ship is inclined at a small angle
dΦ. C.B has moved off the ship’s centerline as the result of the
inclination. The distance between the action of buoyancy and
weight, GZ, is called righting arm.

• Transverse Metacenter: A vertical line through the C.B

intersects the original vertical centerline at point, M.

GZ  GM sin d 
 GMd  if d  1
Small angle inclination
d   5  0.087266
Location of the Transverse Metacenter
Transverse metacentric height : the vertical distance
between the C.G. and M (GM). It is important as an
index of transverse stability at small angles of inclination.
GZ is positive, if the moment is righting moment. M
should be above C.G, GZ >0.

If we know the location of M, we may find GM, and thus the

righting arm GZ or righting moment can be determined
given a small angle dΦ.

Righting Moment = GZ    (GM * d )*( g *  * )

 Ix
BM  ; BM   the distance from C.B. to M

H M ( KM ) the distance from the baseline (keel) to M .
Ix
KM = H M = + Z B ,

where Z B is the vertical coordinates of the C.B.
The vertical distance between the metacenter & C.G,
Ix
GM  H M  Z G  + Z B  Z G .

Examples of a) Rectangular cross section
computing KM d 1
Z B  , I x  LB 3 ,   LBd
2 12
Ix B2
BM  
 12d
d B2 d
KM  BM  Z B  
12d 2
B
b) Triangular cross section
B 2d 1 1
ZB  , I x  LB 3 ,   LBd
3 12 2
I x B2
BM  
d  6d
B 2 2d
KM  BM  Z B  
6d 3
• Ship Resistance (Drag )
A ship actually moves at the same time through two
fluids, water and air, with widely different density.
While the lower part of the hull is moving through
water, the upper part is moving through air. Because
a   w , the air resistance is usually much smaller
than the water resistance, except for those aerostatic
support of hydrodynamic support crafts.

Summary: Water resistance (submerged part of a hull)

Air resistance (upper part of hull &
superstructure)
Types of Water Resistances
1. Wave-Making Resistance: Waves are generated on
the surface of water and spread away from a ship.
Waves possess energy. Thus a ship making waves
means a loss of its energy. Wave-making
resistance is important to surface ships, especially
those of high speeds.
2. Frictional Resistance: arising due to the viscosity
of water, i.e. tangential stresses. Because of
viscosity & velocity gradient in the direction normal
to the ship hull, there is a mass of fluid being
dragged along with a ship. Energy necessary to drag
the mass of fluid is the work done by the ship
against the frictional resistance.
3. Eddy-making Resistance: Due to the viscosity of the
fluid, the flow separates from the surface of a hull and
eddies (vortices) are formed. These eddies induce the
changes in the velocity field and thus change the
normal pressures on a hull. The changes in the
pressure field around a ship result in the eddy-making
resistance.

Air resistance (mainly resulting from wind resistance).

Appendage resistances: are caused by the appendages
of a ship, such as propellers, rudders and bilge keels.
Naked Ship Resistance RN  RF  RR
Total RT  RF  RR  Rair  Rapp
Computation of Frictional Resistance
Reynolds Number (non - dimensional)
Re  LV /
Schoenherr formula (1947 ATTC line)
0.242
 log10  Re CF  , for Re  4.5  108 .
CF
1957 ITTC line formula
0.075
CF  , for Re  10 .
7

 log10 Re 2 
2

1
Frictional Resistance FF  V 2 SCF
2
• Influence of Roughness of a plate on CF

The formulas for computing CF are applied to the flat plates with
smooth surface. The rough surface (of a ship) will result in the
increase of CF . Roughness (on the surface of a hull) may be
classified into 3 types.

1. Structural roughness: caused by welded joints, warviness of

shell plating on the hull. A newly-built ship will have
C f  0.0004 (for Schoenherr formula).
2. Corrosion
3. Fouling: caused by the attachment of marine organisms such as
seaweeds, shells and barnacles.
Corrosion & fouling occur for ships having sailed for a certain
period of time. They will decrease the velocity of the ship. Ship
owner will decide when the ship should go to the dock for cleaning.
Wave-Making Resistance
Wave-making resistance is important to
1. a surface ship (negligible for submarine); & V
2. its speed is high. Accurately speaking, its Froude # , FR 
gL
V
or in U.S. the speed/length ratio, L is high.
It is noticed that the speed to length ratio is a dimensional
coefficient, where V is in knots, L in feet.
A nautical mile/hr (knot) = 0.5144 m/s.
V
 1 is equivalent to FR  0.3
L
When FR  0.1, CW & RW is negligible.
When FR  0.45, CW  V 6 , RW is dominant in RT .
1
RR  V 2 SCW (CW determined via model tests)
2
 • Ship Wave Pattern
Lord Kelvin (1887) considered a single pressure point traveling
in a straight line over the surface of the water, sending out
waves which combine to form a characteristic pattern.

Transverse Waves

Divergence Waves
•Ship Wave Pattern
Kelvin wave pattern illustrates and explains many of the
features of ship waves. Ship wave pattern is similar to the
combination of two Kelvin wave systems generated by two
pressure points, with one near the bow and the other near the
stern.
Wave pattern of a ship
Wave pattern behind a moving duck
Wave Pattern of a small boat (divergence wave pattern)
Wave Pattern of a small boat (divergence wave pattern)
A Towing Carriage and A Ship Model
A Towing Carriage
Overview of MarinTek’s Shop Model Tank (Norway)
Propulsive Devices
Paddle-Wheels: While the draft varying with ship displacement,
the immersion of wheels also varies. The wheels may come out
of water when the ship is rolling, causing erratic course-keeping,
& they are likely to damage from rough seas.

Propellers: Its first use was in a steam-driven boat at N.Y. in

1804. Advantages over paddle-wheels are,
1) not substantially affected by normal changes in draft;
2) not easily damaged;
3) decreasing the width of the ship, &
4) good efficiency driven by lighter engine.
Since then, propellers have dominated in use of marine
propulsion.
Paddle Wheels Propulsion (Stern)
Paddle Wheels Propulsion (Midship)
Propeller (5-blade)
Propeller (5-blade) & Rudder
Jet type: Water is drawn by a pump & delivered sternwards as a
jet at a high velocity. The reaction providing the thrust. It’s use
has been restricted to special types of ships.

Other propulsion Devices:

1. Nozzles (Duct) Propellers: main purpose is to increase the

thrust at low ship speed (tug, large oil tanker)
2. Vertical-Axis Propellers: Advantage is to control the direction
of thrust. Therefore, the ship has good maneuverability.
3. Controllable-Pitch Propellers (CCP): The pitch of screw can
be changed so that it will satisfy all working conditions.
4. Tandem and Contra-rotating Propellers: It is used because
the diameter of a propeller is restricted due to limit of the draft
or other reasons (torpedo). The efficiency of the propeller
usually decreases.
Jet Propulsion
Nozzle Propellers
Vertical-Axis Propellers
Vertical-Axis Propellers
Controllable Pitch Propellers (CPP)
Contra-rotating Propellers
Type of Ship Machinery (Engine)

1.Steam Engine

2.Steam Turbine

3.Internal combustion engines (Diesel engine)

4. Gas Turbines

5. Nuclear reactors – turbine

Engine (Brake) Power: Measured at right behind the
engine PB
Delivered horsepower (PD): the power delivered to the
propeller.
PD  PB S S  Efficiency of the shaft
transfer energy from the engine to the propeller

Thrust horsepower (PT):

PT  PD O =T VA
O - Efficiency of the Propeller in open water
T - Thrust delivered by the propeller
VA - Advancing velocity of the propeller
Effective horsepower (PE , or EHP):
RT – total resistance
Vs – advance velocity of ship
PE  RT VS
VS  RT
PE / PT = = H
VA  T
PE PE PT
D      H  R O H O
PD PT PD
D - quasi-propulsive coefficient (efficiency)
H - Hull coefficient (efficiency)
• Propulsion Efficiency

Total propulsion efficiency

PE
T  PS can also be replaced by PB or PI
PS
A more meaningful measure of hydrodynamic performance
of a propeller is: a quasi-propulsive coefficient,  D
PE
D  ,
PD
PD
S  , where S is the shaft transmission efficiency
PS
and thus, T   DS .
S - 98% for ships with main engine aft
- 97% for ships with main engine amidship
- smaller if a gear box is used.