Advanced Transportation Engineering

Elective-II
G. Narendra Goud
Assistant Professor, CED-MVSREC
gnarendragoud@gmail.com
 Contents of the Course
• Unit-I. Soil- Stabilized Road: Preliminary investigation, materials, techniques of
stabilizations, methods of stabilization, mechanical, Mehra’s Method, Soil
cement, soil bitumen and soil lime stabilization

• UNIT-II. Flexible and Rigid Pavement Design: GI Method, IRC revised

CBR, design of rigid pavement - Concepts of ESWL, stresses due to Loads,
temperature, warping, friction & critical combination, IRC method of Rigid
pavement Design.

• UNIT-III. Pavement Distress and Evaluation: Skid resistance,

structural evaluation, Benklemen beams method, overlays
Highways drainage Importance, requirements, surface drainage systems, sub-
surface drainage system.
 Contents of the Course
• UNIT-IV. Highway Capacity & Economic Evaluation: Concept of PCU (IRC), LoS
concept, factors, multilane capacities for rural, urban, and express ways, concept
of transport cost & benefits, B/C ratio, NPV, ROR, and their relative comparison
for evaluation.
Accidents, causes, methodologies for accident causing precautions to minimize
the accidents.

• UNIT-V. Travel Demand Management: Traffic management systems (TMS) -

Restrictions on turning movements, one way streets, tidel Flow -operations,
exclusive bus lanes.
Traffic relief at junctions, parking studies, parking inventories, types of parking
service, parking analysis, bottlenecks
Nature and traffic problems in cities. Effect on environment due to traffic noise
and air pollution
introduction to computer applications in traffic and transport planning
 REFERENCES
1. S K Khanna & C E G Jesto “Highway Engineering”
2. L.R. Kadiyali, (2000) ”Principles and Practice of Highway Engineering” , Khanna
Publications, New Delhi.
3. Sharma, S. K. (2012) Principles, Practices and Design of Highway Engineering
including Airport Pavements. S. Chand and Company ltd, New Delhi.
4. Huang, Y. H.Pavement Analysis and Design, Prentice Hall,Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, 2004.
5. Yoder, E. J.; Witczak, M. W. (2012) Principles of Pavement Design, 2nd Edition, John
Wiley and Sons, Indian Edition, New Delhi.
6. F.L. Mannering, W.P. Kilareski and S.S. Washburn, Principles of Highway Engineering
and Traffic Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, 2005.
7. IRC 37-2001,12 Guidelines for Design of flexible pavements
8. IRC 58-2002 Guidelines for Design of Rigid pavements
9. IRC SP 72-2007 Guidelines for Design of Flexible pavements for low volume rural
roads
10. IRC SP 62-2004 Guidelines for Design of Rigid pavements for low volume rural roads
11. IRC 81:1997 BBD survey and Overlay design
 Unit-1: Soil- Stabilized Roads
1. Definition, Need, Purpose, Principles of soil stabilization
2. Preliminary investigation
3. Materials
4. Techniques of stabilization
5. Methods of stabilization
A. Mechanical stabilization
B. Mehra’s Method
C. Soil cement stabilization
D. Soil bitumen stabilization and
E. Soil lime stabilization
6. Methods of construction
 Definition of Soil Stabilization
• Process of treating a soil to maintain, alter or improve the
performance of the soil as a construction material
• The changes in the soil properties are brought about
either by the incorporation of
– Additives or
– By Mechanical blending of different soil types
 Need for Soil Stabilization

 Limited Financial Resources to Provide a complete

network Road System to build in conventional method

 Effective utilization of locally available soils and other

suitable stabilizing agents.

 Encouraging the use of Industrial Wastages in building

low cost construction of roads.
 Purpose of soil stabilization
• To improve the strength
• To economize the road cost
• To make use of locally available material
• To reduce high plasticity, excessive swelling/shrinkage
• To control dust
• To facilitate compaction and increase load bearing
capacity
• To reduce frost susceptibility, compressibility, settlements
• To improve permeability characteristics
 Basic Principles of Soil Stabilization

• Evaluating the properties of given soil

• Deciding the lacking property of soil and choose

effective and economical method of soil stabilization

• Designing the Stabilized soil mix for intended stability

and durability values

• Consideration and selection of appropriate

construction procedure of stabilized layer
2. Preliminary investigation for Soil Stabilized Roads
• Investigation of route and alignment
• Soil survey and field identification of soils
• Survey for availability of materials and transportation
Source identification, index map
• Laboratory tests on soils
Sampling from site and detailed investigation of Index and
Engineering properties
• Soil classification
IS Classification, HRB or Revised PCA method
 Laboratory tests on soils
• Grain Size Analysis
– D10, D30, D50, D60
– Coefficient of Uniformity, Cu
– Coefficient Curvature, CC
– Passing0.075mm, P4.75mm-R0.075mm, Retained4.75mm
• Atterberg Limits
– Liquid Limit
– Plastic Limit
– Plasticity Index (PI)
• Free Swell Index
• Compaction Curve (MDD-OMC)
– Standard Proctor test
– Modified Proctor test
• California Bearing Ratio (CBR), C-ф, Resilient Modulus(MR)
 Soil classification
• IS Classification
 Soil classification
• HRB or Modified PRA classification system
– Widely used for highway purpose
– Two major groups,
1. Passing 75micron 35% or less
2. Passing75micron more than 35%
3. Materials for Stabilization
• Aggregate (Crushed stone, sand, slag)
• Fine Soil (silt and clay)
• Stabilizers/Additives
• Lime
• Cement
• Fly-ash (cementing)
• Bituminous materials (water proofing and binding)
• Polymers (water proofing and binding)
• Calcium chloride CaCl (used as dust-palliative)
• Sodium Chloride NaCl (compaction aiding and evaporation preventing)
• Sodium silicate NaSi (used for sandy soil stabilization)
• Lignin (by-product from paper industry used as cementing binder)
• Resins (woods product used to reduce water absorption)
• Molasses (by-product from sugar industry used as dust-palliative)
4. Techniques of stabilization
1. Proportioning technique
(fines+sand+gravel)
2. Cementing agents
(cement,lime,fly-ash)
3. Modifying agents
(lime)
4. Water proofing agents
(bituminous materials, polymers)
5. Water repelling agents
(vinsol resin-wood product)
6. Water retaining agents
(calcium chloride)
7. Heat treatment
(clayey soils, soft aggregate)
8. Chemical stabilization
(sodium silicate)
5. Methods of stabilization
A. Mechanical stabilization
– Intelligent blending of local materials to obtain desired grading
– Internal friction improvement by coarser particles
– Cohesion improvement by clay fraction
– Applications:
1. Soil-Aggregate mixtures
2. Sand-clay mixtures
3. Sand-gravel mixtures
4. Stabilization of soil with soft aggregates
B. Stabilization by additives
– Lime
– Cement
– Fly-ash
– Bituminous materials
– Polymers, Calcium chloride, Sodium Chloride, Sodium silicate, Lignin,
Resins, Molasses
 Mechanical Stabilization
• Factors Affecting Mechanical Stabilization
– Mechanical Strength of aggregates
– Gradation
– Properties of the Soil
– Presence of Salts
– Compaction
 Mechanical Stabilization-Mix Design
• Soil and aggregate mixed in suitable proportions to
achieve Dense and stable mixes
• Particle size distribution is a major factor in determining
the stability of the mix
• To achieve high value of density grain size distribution
should follow the Fuller’s curve given by
p=100(d/D)n
Where p=percentage passing any sieve
d=aperture of the sieve in question
D=the maximum size of the aggregate
n=exponential, 0.45 to 0.5
• Voids between larger stones filled by smaller particles and inter-
particle friction ignored
 Fuller’s curve
p = 100(d/D)n
Where n=0.45
D=37.5mm
d=sieve size
100
Sieve size %
90
[mm] passing, p
80
37.5 100.0 Percentage passing, %
70
25 83.3
19 73.6 60

12.5 61.0 50

9.5 53.9 40
4.75 39.5
30
2.36 28.8
1.18 21.1 20

0.600 15.6 10

0.300 11.4 0
0.150 8.3 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

0.075 6.1 Sieve Size, mm

 Proportioning of Materials
• Two graphical methods in common use for proportioning
of materials are,
– Triangular chart method and
– Rothfuch's method
– Trail and error method (bituminous/concrete mix design)
 Triangular chart Method
• This method is applicable when three materials are to be mixed
• The materials may be conveniently divided as coarse aggregate,
sand and fines and their percentages are marked on a triangular
chart
• Let materials A, B and C are coarse, medium and fines respectively.
• Points A, B and C are plotted on the triangular chart knowing the
grain size distribution.
• Point D is plotted in the triangular chart representing the desired
gradation.
 Triangular chart Method
• Now the graphical construction for obtaining the proportion of A, B
and C is made by producing the line CD to meet the line AB to E.

A=85+10+5
B=15+75+10
C=5+70+25

D=42.5+12.5+45

<0.06mm
 Rothfuch's method
• It is used when a No. of materials have to be mixed together for
obtaining appropriate gradation
• Gradation may be decided either based upon recommended grain
size distribution charts or by any equation like Fuller's gradation
• On a graph paper when Y-axis represents % passing and X-axis
representing particle size a diagonal line is drawn from point
corresponding to 100% particles passing i.e maximum particle size
passing to a point corresponding to 0% passing i.e smallest particle
size
• For different materials sieve analysis has to be done and percentage
finer has to be calculated
• Obtain balancing straight lines of each material by allowing only
minimum of the areas on the either sides of the balancing lines
 Rothfuch's method
Draw Balancing lines for each material,
Join opposite ends of A&B, B&C
Points where these lines meet the Desired Gradation line represent the proportions in which
type materials A, B and C are to be mixed
Read values from Y-axis by projecting the Points of intersection
 Stabilization of soil with soft aggregates
(Mehra’s Method)
• Soft aggregates Gravel, moorum and kankar (an impure form of
lime stone mixed with clay and earth), over burnt bricks are also
used for road construction
• A method of stabilization using brick aggregates and soil was
suggested by S.R. Mehra
• The principle behind this method is to embed in a soil mortar,
course aggregates roughly 1/3rd of the total volume.
• Each aggregate is enveloped all round in the compacted soil and is
protected from crushing effect of traffic
 Stabilization of soil with soft aggregates
(Mehra’s Method)
Construction method in Brief
• Soil collection from approved borrow pits and road side stacking
• Spreading, water sprinkling up to OMC and mixing
• leveling to proper grades and desired camber
• 115mm thick loose base course sandy soil compact using 8 ton
roller to a thickness of 75mm
• Surface course material Brick aggregate + soil in the ratio of 1:2
mixed with adequate water is spread to 115mm loose thickness and
compact to 75mm
• After rolling the surface is watered and left overnight. The surface is
again rolled and finished
• The road is closed to traffic for 4 to 5 days and kept sprinkled with
water
• After 2 weeks opened to traffic, initially only rubber tyred vehicles
allowed
• With bituminous surfacing it can perform better
 Compaction of Soil
• By applying energy through
– Static Rolling
– Ramming or Impact
– Vibration
• Different Rollers include
– Smooth wheel rollers
– Sheep’s foot or Pad foot Rollers (Cohesive soils)
– Pneumatic Tyred Rollers
– Vibratory Rollers (Cohesionless soils)
– Combination Rollers
– Intelligent Compactors (GPS connected, real time monitoring)
 Soil cement stabilization
• Addition of cement to soil improve its strength
• Almost all soils can be treated with cement
• Soil cement is able to spread the load over a wide area and bridge
over locally weak spots of the underlying sub-grade or sub base
• Quantity of Cement 4 to 14%
• Unconfined Compressive Strength 1.7 to 2.76MN/sq.m at 7days
• Factors affecting strength of soil cement mixes
– Cement content
– Moisture content
– Soil type
– Degree of pulverization in mixing
– Mixing
– Compaction
– Curing
 Soil bitumen stabilization
• Bitumen treatment binds particles together (cohesion
improvement)
• Bitumen treated mixture becomes less prone to the
adverse effects caused by ingress of water
• Spray of bitumen on surface of low-volume roads can
prevent dust and stop the entry of water into the road
• types of bitumen treatment
1. Soil aggregate bitumen
2. Bitumen spray
 Soil bitumen stabilization
• Different Binder type:
– Road tars
– Bitumen Cut-backs
– Bitumen emulsions
– Foamed bitumen

Treatment Approx. quantity of Bitumen

sand bitumen 4-10%
Soil bitumen 4-8%
Soil aggregate bitumen 2-6%
Bitumen spray 5 lit/sq.m 2-3applications
 Soil Lime Stabilization
• The aluvial silty soils of northern plains, Delta clayey soils,
Black-cotton soils and Moorums are suitable
• Lime (Ca(OH)2) treatment reduces plasticity substantially
• Soil swell and shrinkage potential significantly reduces
• Unconfined Compressive strength of 28days cured specimens
may be of the order of 0.7 to 1.7MN/sq.m
• Quantity of lime 4-10% by weight of dry soil
• Benefits of lime stabilization are influenced by
– Purity of lime
– Fineness of lime
– Degree of pulverization of soil
– Degree of compaction
– Curing conditions
 Lime Treatment Process
• The traditional method of lime treatment is
– Spread the lime on the surface of the clay
– Mix it thoroughly
– Allow the lime-clay mix to mellow
– Compact the mix (at or slightly wet of OMC)
– Allow the compacted material to cure
• What is the point of Mellowing ?
– Ensure all quicklime is fully hydrated
– Ensure ions penetrate into the clay lumps
– …… and modify the clay fully
– Sulphates in the soil will react to form Ettringite via a highly expansive
reaction
– …… and compaction effects will be lost
– …… BUT if it forms during mellowing, all that is lost is some lime
– Thus while mellowing will reduce the ultimate strength to some
degree…… it can be used to practical advantage
 Lime Treated Clay Soil-Reactions
• Adding quicklime to wet clay causes
• CaO + H2O Ca2+ + OH- + heat
i.e. Hydration of quicklime and steam production
• Reduced water content
• Rapid improvement occurs via modification reactions
– Reduced thickness of adsorbed water layer
– Clay particle agglomeration (flocculation)
– Textural change
– Increased internal angle of friction
– Reduced plasticity (raised PL)
Lime Treated Clay-Change in Density
Lime Dosage
6. Methods of construction
1. In-place or in-situ mixing

2. In-plant mixing
A. Stationery plant

B. Travelling/Mobile plant
In-situ Mixing
Mobile Plant Mixing
 Field Control during construction
Test
Screening over 4.75mm sieve
Moisture density relationship
Field density and moisture
content
Stabilizer content
Compressive strength test of
stabilized mix
Purpose of test
To check pulverization
To form basis for field density check
To monitor and control field
compaction
To check application rate and
uniformity
To determine effectiveness of
stabilizer mixing
 Post construction tests
Test
Stabilizer content (total
quantity used)
Compressive strength test of
field cores
Wetting and drying tests on
cores
Field moisture content
Purpose of test
To check application rate and
uniformity
To determine effectiveness stabilizer
mixing, compaction and curing
Same as above and also to check loss
of strength on alternate drying and
wetting
To determine moisture loss during
curing