Process Capability, Metrology

and Assembly
Part 1 – Metrology
Jody Muelaner
Metrology – Science of Measurement
• Dimensional Metrology
– What it is and why it is important
– Brief history
• Scope
– Lengths, angles, flatness, straightness etc
– The basis for quality manufacturing
• Key Concepts
– Uncertainty, traceability & confidence
– Decision Rules
• Uncertainty Evaluation
– Sources of Uncertainty
– Combining Uncertainty
2
What is Dimensional Metrology?

Knowing the size and shape of things

3
What is Dimensional Metrology?

Interchangeability and Global Trade

4
What is Dimensional Metrology?

Known performance
• Structural factor of safety
• Aerodynamic performance

5
What is Dimensional Metrology?

Fundamental science
• Science depends on measurements
• Dimensional measurement continues
to define capability in physics
• Telescopes, accelerators etc

6
Scope of Dimensional Metrology
• Length
• Angles
• Flatness, straightness,
concentricity etc
• Dependent on:-
– Temperature
– Environment
– Frequency

7
What is a metre?

• 1960: wavelength of
krypton-86 emission
• 1983: Distance
travelled by light in a
vacuum during in
1/299,792,458 s 8
Interferometry
C

f
2 L
N

• Directly traceable
to definition of
metre and to
frequency
standard
• No length
standard required 9
Realizing the metre from its definition
The Metre is currently defined as the distance
travelled by light in a vacuum during
1⁄299,792,458 of a second

10
Realizing the metre from its definition
The Metre is currently defined as the distance
travelled by light in a vacuum during
1⁄299,792,458 of a second

This definition can be used to measure a metre

with a fringe counting interferometer constructed
using a HeNe Laser (Frequency 473.6123536 T
Hz).

C  f

11
Realizing the metre from its definition
The Metre is currently defined as the distance
travelled by light in a vacuum during
1⁄299,792,458 of a second

This definition can be used to measure a metre

with a fringe counting interferometer constructed
using a HeNe Laser (Frequency 473.6123536 T
Hz).

 C/ f
299,792,458
 
473.6123536 1012

12
Realizing the metre from its definition
The Metre is currently defined as the distance
travelled by light in a vacuum during
1⁄299,792,458 of a second

This definition can be used to measure a metre

with a fringe counting interferometer constructed
using a HeNe Laser (Frequency 473.6123536 T
Hz).

C  f
299,792,458
   632.991213 nm
473.6123536  1012

13
Realizing the metre from its definition
  632.991213 nm

14
Realizing the metre from its definition
  632.991213 nm
2L
N

N  3 159 601.522

15
Absolute Distance Measurement
• d = distance being measured
• λ1 and λ2 are two successive
wave lengths when the signals
are in-phase
• N1 and N2 are the
corresponding integer numbers
d
1
N1 d 
2
of wavelengths over the length N2
2 2
d.

16
Absolute Distance Measurement
• d = distance being measured
• λ1 and λ2 are two successive
wave lengths when the signals
are in-phase
• N1 and N2 are the
corresponding integer numbers
d
1
N1 d 
2
of wavelengths over the length N2
2 2
d.

• Since fringes are successive… N 2  N1  1

17
Absolute Distance Measurement
• d = distance being measured
• λ1 and λ2 are two successive
wave lengths when the signals
are in-phase
• N1 and N2 are the
corresponding integer numbers
d
1
N1 d 
2
of wavelengths over the length N2
2 2
d.

• Since fringes are successive… N 2  N1  1

c
• And we know that 1  2 
c 2d
f1 N
f2 
• Therefore (find d)

18
Absolute Distance Measurement
• d = distance being measured
• λ1 and λ2 are two successive
wave lengths when the signals
are in-phase
• N1 and N2 are the
corresponding integer numbers
d
1
N1 d 
2
of wavelengths over the length N2
2 2
d.

• Since fringes are successive… N 2  N1  1

c
• And we know that 1  2 
c 2d
f1 N
f2 
• Therefore
c
2  d  f2 2  d  f1 d 
N2  N1  2 f 2  f1 
c c 19
What is a degree of arc?
• Subdivision
• No standard required

20
What is Straight and Flat?

21
What is Straight and Flat?

22
What is Straight and Flat?

23
Interferometry for Straightness

24
The basis for Quality Manufacturing
• Tools & Machines
– Straightness
– Angles
– Scales
• Measurement feedback
– Fettling
– Closed loop automation
• Measurement for
verification
– Proving conformance

25
Key Concepts
• Dimensional Metrology
– What it is any why it is important
– Brief history
• Scope
– Lengths, angles, flatness, straightness etc
– The basis for Quality Manufacturing
• Key Concepts
– Uncertainty, traceability & confidence
– Decision Rules
• Uncertainty Evaluation
– Sources of Uncertainty
– Combining Uncertainty
26
Uncertainty of Measurement
How long is the bolt?

“It’s about 100 mm”

27
Confidence Levels

“Give or take 5 mm”

• Assigning limits
• The larger the range of
uncertainty the higher
our confidence it
encompasses the true
value
28
Confidence Levels & Statistics

The larger the range of

uncertainty the higher our
confidence it encompasses
the true value

29
Calibration

• Comparison with a
reference
• Uncertainty results
from:-
– Comparison process
– Repeatability in use
– Uncertainty of
reference

30
Repeatably Wrong!

True but not precise

(poor repeatability)

Correct specification
involves Uncertainty,
accuracy should no longer
be used as a quantitative
term

Precise but not accurate

(repeatably wrong!) 31
Traceability

32
Rules for Proving Conformance

33
Uncertainty Evaluation
• Dimensional Metrology
– What it is and why it is important
– Brief history
• Scope
– Lengths, angles, flatness, straightness etc
– The basis for Quality Manufacturing
• Key Concepts
– Uncertainty, traceability & confidence
– Decision Rules
• Uncertainty Evaluation
– Sources of uncertainty
– Combining Uncertainty
34
Sources of Uncertainty
• Alignment errors
• Repeatability
• Calibration Uncertainty
• Resolution
• Temperature

35
Cosine Error

ΔL=L-Lcosθ
36
Parallax Error

37
Abbe Error

38
Repeatability and Reproducibility
• Repeatability: Series of
observations under same
conditions
• Reproducibility: Series of
observations under
different conditions
• Gage R&R ANOVA: a
good method but not a
substitute for uncertainty
evaluation

39
Resolution
• Rounding errors can be up to half of an
instruments resolution

40
Calibration Uncertainty
• Uncertainty inherited down
traceability chain
• Uncertainty for calibration
involves all sources
(reference standard,
repeatability etc)
• Value given on calibration
certificate
This is not the uncertainty for
measurements made using the
instrument, it is simply the component
of uncertainty due to calibration
41
Some Basic Statistics
• Standard deviation
• Normal distributions
• Central limit theorem

42
Central Limit Theorem
• For now assume all normally distributed
(Generally works due to central limit theorem)
• Combining different distributions in next lecture

43
Combining Uncertainties
• Some simple sources of
uncertainty
• Measurement result
𝑦 = 𝑥 + ∆𝑥𝑇 + ∆𝑥𝐶
• x is true length
• ΔxT is error due to
thermal expansion
• ΔxC is error due to
callipers

44
Combining Uncertainties
Probability of maximal error in the same direction very
small (assuming independent random variables).
Combined uncertainty (Uc) given by:-
2 where measurement result y=f(x) is a
N
 f  2
U c  y      u  xi  function of a number of inputs (x1, x2… xN)
2

i 1  xi 

Since
𝑦 = 𝑥 + ∆𝑥𝑇 + ∆𝑥𝐶

So that all partial derivatives are 1 and Uc is simply:-

N
Uc y   i
u 2
 x   u 2
xT   u 2
xC 
i 1

45
Confidence Levels
• A ‘Standard Uncertainty’ is equivalent
to a standard deviation
• We therefore have 68% confidence
the actual value lies within +/-1
standard uncertainty of the measured
value
• Typically uncertainties are multiplied
by a coverage factor (k) to increase
confidence that the actual value is
within the stated range
• K=2, confidence ~95%
• K=3, confidence ~99.7%
46
A Simple Uncertainty Budget

Uncertainty of a Calliper Measurement

Source of Uncertainty Standard Uncertainty
(1 standard deviation)
Calibration Uncertainty 0.01 mm
Resolution 0.005 mm
Cosine errors 0.002 mm
Temperature 0.05 mm
Repeatability 0.02 mm
Combined Standard
Uncertainty
Expanded Uncertainty
(k=2, 95% confidence)

47
A Simple Uncertainty Budget

Uncertainty of a Calliper Measurement

Source of Uncertainty Standard Uncertainty
(1 standard deviation)
Calibration Uncertainty 0.01 mm
Resolution 0.005 mm
Cosine errors 0.002 mm
Temperature 0.05 mm
Repeatability 0.02 mm
Combined Standard
(RSS)
Uncertainty
Expanded Uncertainty
(RSS x 2)
(k=2, 95% confidence)

48
A Simple Uncertainty Budget

Uncertainty of a Calliper Measurement

Source of Uncertainty Standard Uncertainty
(1 standard deviation)
Calibration Uncertainty 0.01 mm
Resolution 0.005 mm
Cosine errors 0.002 mm
Temperature 0.05 mm
Repeatability 0.02 mm
Combined Standard
0.055 mm
Uncertainty
Expanded Uncertainty
0.110 mm
(k=2, 95% confidence)

49
Summary
• All measurements have uncertainty
• Calibration = Comparison with a
reference
• Traceability = Unbroken chain of
calibrations back to primary reference
• Uncertainty must be subtracted from
tolerances to prove conformance
• Uncertainty results from:-
– Comparison process
– Repeatability in use
– Uncertainty of reference
– etc

50
Exercises
• Sketch an interferometer
• How many fringes in a meter?
• How to calculate absolute
distance?
• List sources of uncertainty for a
micrometer

51