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Fundamentals of Remote Sensing

Lecture for Asean and South Pacific Remote Sensing Course

Riadika Mastra

For more examples:


http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/
I. Basics of remote sensing
• Remote sensing describes the science and art of identifying, observing, and
measuring an object without coming in direct contact with it. The following slides
provide information on the types of remote sensing imagery which can be
considered a map type for the final exam.

Night vision goggles detect objects emitting


The surface of Mars, as obtained by infrared radiation. Satellites use this same
remote sensing technology to see things on the surface not
visible to the naked eye.
More examples of remote sensing:

Rogue waves (around 80 ft in height


detected from space).

NASA probe striking a comet. The probe also


took detailed photos of the comet prior to
impact. Radiance produced from the impact
Martian crater and ice detected by Mars
provided clues to what chemicals comprised
Express spacecraft
this comet.
Remote sensing science involves the detection and
measurement of radiation of different wavelengths
reflected or emitted from distant objects or
materials.

Although remote sensing can involve looking at or


inside humans, or using the remote sensing
technology to peer inside the world of animals, for
geographers, remote sensing most often involves
satellite or airplane observation of phenomena
taking place in the biosphere, atmosphere, and the
lithosphere.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
8
Radio
10
2.4

2.2

2.0 5
SW IR 10 Microwave
1.8

1.6

Thermal IR
1.4 10
Reflected IR
1.2
1 Visible
1.0
-1 Ultra Violet
Near IR 0.8
10

Red
0.6 -4
Green
Blue 10 X Rays
0.4

-6
Wave length 10
Gamma Rays
in micrometer
Electromagnetic spectrum, the basis of remote sensing
The key to understanding remote sensing is the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum,
which measures electromagnetic radiation and is divided into intervals based on
wavelengths.
Virtually all electromagnetic radiation originates from the sun. Keep in mind that
frequency and intensity are also important for determining the effects of
radiation at any particular wavelength.
• Unless an object has a temperature of absolute zero (negative 273
degrees Celsius, 0 degrees Kelvin), an object reflects, absorbs, and
emits electromagnetic radiation
• Wavelengths are defined by the mean distance between successive
maximums (wave crests) or minimums (wave troughs) in a roughly
periodic pattern.
• Shorter waves are measured in nanometers and micrometers,
longer waves in millimeters and meters.
Frequency is the term used to describe the number of
wavelengths that pass a point per unit time.
Intensity denotes how compact or focused a wavelength at a
particular frequency is. er of wavelengths that pass through a
point at
The amount of electromagnetic radiation an object emits depends
mainly on the temperature of the object. The higher the
temperature of an object, the shorter its wavelength. Lower
temperatures have shorter wavelengths.
• Transmissitivity is the ability of the atmosphere to allow radiation to
pass through.
– Areas of the EM spectrum absorbed by atmospheric gases such
as water vapor and carbon dioxide are absorption bands.
– Areas of the EM spectrum where the atmosphere is transparent
with little or no absorption of radiationare known as atmospheric
windows. They allow radiation to pass through directly.
– Most remote sensing instruments on aircraft or satellites operate in
one or more of these atmospheric windows or across entire swaths
of the spectrum..
Multispectral sensors and spectral resolution
• If a sensor detects over a wide range of the spectrum and separates portions
of the spectrum into distinct bands, we refer to it as a multispectral sensor.
• Spectral resolution refers to the ability of a sensor to define fine wavelength
intervals. The finer the spectral resolution, the narrower the wavelength
range for a particular channel or band. Notice how the two multispectral
sensors (Aster and Landsat ETM differ in their spectral resolution.

Bands of the EM spectrum measured by the Aster satellite


compared with the Landsat ETM+ satellite.
In a multispectral image,
individual bands can be used to
make individual images, which
can then be combined in various
ways to bring out particular
details on the surface.
In this early multispectral image,
these four bands of the multispectral
sensor (top) can be used to detect
particular features (note how rivers
are better detected with bands at
top right). The bands can be
combined to produce a composite
image (bottom) and colorized in
order to show much more than what
could be seen with the naked eye
alone.
The radiation detected by satellite sensors depends on filtering in
absorption bands and the radiation that passes through particular
atmospheric windows.
Various kinds of surface materials can be distinguished from each
other by satellite sensors by the differences in the wavelengths of
EM radiation. Each object has a characteristic radiation signature
known as a spectral signature or radiometric signature.
Hal :16

SOIL

VEGETATION

WATER

0,3 1 3 10 m
II. Remote sensing hardware
• Remote sensing information may be acquired in active or passive
mode.
Passive Remote Sensing
Energy source, Target, back ground, Spectral reflection, platform
and Sensor
the sun platform
sensor

obstacle

target
reflection emission

absorb ground station


• Passive remote sensing systems (sun) measure naturally generated
radiation reflected off of distant objects. Examples of passive systems
include Landsat and Ikonos satellites and aerial photographs.

Passive sensors record radiation from the sun The Ikonos satellite produces very detailed
reflected off of objects on the ground. imaged of the earth’s surface based on
recordings of reflected solar radiation.
III. Types of remote sensing
• Analog and Digital Aerial photography
(Pasive RS)
• Sonar, Radar, Lidar (Active RS)
• Multispectral sensors (Pasive and Active).
Aerial photos
• Aerial photos can be divided based on film type.
• Photographic film can be coated with different
light-sensitive emulsions, each sensitive to specific
wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation.
– Black and white emulsion sensitive to approximately the
same wavelengths as the human eye.
– Infrared emulsion sensitive to wavelengths that fall
outside the range of human vision. IR film is commonly
used to produce color-infrared photos. IR imagery uses
false color, since we can’t really see the wavelengths
recorded on infrared film.
Aerial photo: Black and white emulsion Aerial photo: Color infrared emulsion

Features that may have similar shades of gray in black and white aerial photos
will be much more distinguishable with IR film. For example, broadleaf vegetation
(oaks, maples) is highly reflective in the IR spectrum, much more than pines. As a
result these forest types can be distinguished in IR aerial photos. Water and land
contrasts are also more pronounced in IR aerial photos.
Color infrared
Hardwood trees (oaks,
hickories, tupelo) appear as
darker blue colors.
Pines are red.

Vegetation along the river is


distinctly different from the
surrounding uplands.
Archaeological site in high
resolution air photography
Digital fotogrammetry

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Camera Concepts
ADS40

Single lens sensor with 10 channels generates endless pixel carpets

DMS UltraCam

Multi lens sensors with up to eight lenses generates patchwork frames


Digital Camera Concepts

digital frames

pixel carpets
DATA ACQUISITION
(BY LEICA GEOSYSTEMS ADS40)
Three-line Pushbroom Scanner
Backward scene Nadir scene Forward scene

composed composed composed


of backward view lines of nadir view lines of forward view lines
Backward

Nadir

Forward
Pan-Sharpening (Image Fusion)

Panchromatic Original Color Pan-sharpened Color


Contur generation from 3D data
Air Photo Acquisition
• Optimal to fly late morning
– low wind
– clear sky
– minimal shadows
• What time of year?
– March/April for photogrammetry
– August for vegetation studies

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Problems with Aerial Photography
• Clouds, haze, shadows/sun angle, snow
• Distortion
– tip & tilt
– relief distortion
– radial distortion
• Limited to 0.3 - 0.9 m (UV-NIR)
• Storage and handling can be a problem

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• Active remote sensing systems generate their own electromagnetic
radiation, which is transmitted from the sensor to the observed object
and back to the sensor. Radar, Lidar, microwave, and Sonar are
examples of active sensor emission sources.

Lidar (Light detection and ranging) Lidar image of Ground Zero in New York City.
systems are one form of active
remote sensing.
Sensors
• Sensors may be housed on satellites, planes, on top of buildings, or
even towed along the back of a vehicle
• Three basic sensor types:
– Broad-band devices receive radiation of many wavelengths and
composites them into a single signal. Photographic film (or CCD
and CMOS) forms an image by compositing the range of
wavelengths duplicated in human vision..
– A narrow-band device detects limited range of wavelengths and
does not separate them into individual wavelengths, or bands.
– Multi-spectral devices simultaneously record radiation in two or
more separate wavelength bands that can be later recombined.

Aerial photography uses photographic film, a broad-band sensor.


Radar, Lidar and Sonar
• Radar (radio detection and ranging)
uses a transmitter to emit either radio or
microwave radiation (in which case we
call it Doppler) and a directional
antenna to receive and measure the
time of arrival of reflected pulses from
distant objects. Radar image of Hurricane
• Lidar (light detection and ranging) uses Audrey, 1957
a lasar (light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation) instead of radio
or microwave radiation.
• Sonar (sound navigation and ranging)
is based on the transmission of sound
waves through water or solids. Sonar
sensors record the amount of energy
back-scattered from the bottom or the
Sonar image of submerged
ocean or from objects in the water. oceanic mountain.
These two images show how dual-polarization helps the NWS forecaster detect a
tornado producing damage. The left image shows how the Doppler radar can detect
rotation. Between the two yellow arrows, the red color indicates outbound wind while
the green colors indicated inbound wind relative to the location of the radar.

Doppler is commonly used to make atmospheric profiles of clouds.


This includes their motion and the composition of the particles in the
air, particularly precipitation.
Doppler radar station. Pulses of microwave radiation
emanate from this location. Click on image or go to this
link to access description of how Doppler works:
http://www.srh.noaa.gov/srh/jetstream/doppler/doppler
_intro.htm
How Radar and Doppler works

Analog radars use continuous radio wave transmission and simultaneous


listening

Doppler radar sends the energy in pules and listens for any returned signal
Laser-based imaging
device used by law
enforcement to
determine if you are
speeding.

When this type of


device is enlarged and
mounted as a sensor
on a satellite and tied
into a GPS….
Indonesian Traffic Police Brigade Laser-based imaging device
used by law enforcement to
determine if you are
speeding.
Speed Enforcement / Measurement
The use of lasers or lidar (light detection and ranging) for speed enforcement is
quickly becoming the standard for law enforcement departments worldwide.
Introduction
Airborne LiDAR

44
“LiDAR” stands for
Light Detection and Ranging,

and is an optical remote sensing


technology which measures properties of
scattered light to find range and speed of a
distant target.

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Methods to obtain 3D Geospatial Digital data
Method Data Scale Height Relative Total
Accuracy Cost Quality
90m Mesh data SRTM 1/50,000 < 16m LL Poor

Ground Survey D-GPS 1/10,000 1~3m HHH Good


RTK 1/500~1,000 1~3cm HHH Excellent
Digitaizing Scanned 1/2,500 < 1~2m L Good
(DM) Analog Map 1/50,000 < 10~20m L Poor
Aerial 1/1,000 < 30~40cm HH Excellent
Stereo photograph 1/2,500 < 60~70cm H Excellent
Matching
1/25,000~ ALOS Standard Good
Satellite image 1/50,000 5m
1/5,000~ IKONOS Standard Good
1/10,000 2~4m
Laser scanning Airborne 1/500~
LiDAR 15~50cm H Excellent
1/5,000

1/5,000~
Airborne SAR ±1~2m HHH Good
Interferometry 1/10,000
Satellite SAR 1/50,000 TerraSAR Standard Poor
10m
Comparison of LiDAR & Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry LiDAR
Method Analog Aerial Airborne
photograph Laser/GPS/IMU
Sensor Passive (Camera) Active
(Scanning Laser)
3D data ・A/D Trans. of film ・Reflective pulse
Acquisition ・Stereo matching ・Direct measurement
Processing Two month Two weeks
period
Cost 1 Less than 0.5

★ In case of 10 km2 mapping by 1/2000 scale


What is Airborne Laser Scanning System ?

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Laser Scanners

ALS50-II
ALTM3010 MULTI PULSE

ALS60
MULTI PULSE Harrier56
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Laser Bird Series
Laser Bird No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Heri1
Maker OPTECH OPTECH OPTECH Leica Geosystem Leica Geosystem Leica Geosystem Toposys
Product country Canada Canada Canada USA USA USA German
Maker Type ALTM1025 ALTM2033 ALTM3100DC ALS50-2 ALS50-2+MPIA ALS60 Q560
Year 1998 2001 2004 2006 2008 2009 2009
Sensor Weight(kg) 18 18 23.4 30 30 30 20
25W×32L× 26W×19L× 37W×56L× 37W×56L× 37W×56L×
Sensor size 39W×45D×55H 56W×20L×21.7H
56Hcm 57Hcm 24Hcm 24Hcm 24Hcm
Control lack Weight(kg) 60 42 53.2 40 40 40 76
59W×57L× 65W×59L× 45W×47L× 45W×47L× 45W×47L×
Control lack size 60W×71D×60H 43W×67L78H
40Hcm 49Hcm 36Hcm 36Hcm 36Hcm
AGL (m) 150~1000 330~3,000 80~3,500 200~6,000 200~6,000 200~6,000 30~1,000
Pulse Rate(Hz) 5,000 25,000 33,000 150,000 150,000 200,000 240,000
  33,000 50,000
Changeable on AGL Changeable on AGL Changeable on AGL Changeable on AGL
70,000
  100,000 MPiA MPiA
IMU TYPE POS/AV410 POS/AV410 POS/AV510 IPAS IPAS10 IPAS10 POS/AV510
PulseMode 1st 1st/last 1,2,3rd/last 1,2,3rd/last 1,2,3rd/last 1,2,3rd/last 50cm Inteval
Wave Form × × × × Option Option ○
Vertical Accuracy(cm) 15 15 15~35 13~30 13~30 13~30 <15
Horizontal Accuracy(cm)
1/2,000×H 1/2,000×H 1/3,000×H 11~46 11~46 11~46 <25
ビーム径(mrad) 0.2,1.0(切替) 0.2,0.8(切替) 0.3,0.8(切替) 0.22@1/e^2 0.22@1/e^2 0.22@1/e^2
Scan angle
0~±20° 0~±20° 0~±25° 0~±37.5° 0~±37.5° 0~±37.5° 0~±30
(Foresight of View)
Intensity × ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Digital camera 4K×4K 7.2K×5.4K 7.2K×5.4K 7.2K×5.4K 7.2K×5.4K 4.9k×3.7K
Platform C208 C208 C207,C208,C404 C404 C208,207 C208,207 Heriborn R44
We have owned 7 different laser scanning systems since 1999. At present (Dec. 2010) , we
operates three airplane and one helicopter equipped the Laser Bird.
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Acquisition and Data Processing Flow
Motion data of aircraft
(IMU: Inertial Motion Sensor )

Distance between aircraft


and the ground
(Laser Altimetry )

Position of aircraft
(GPS)

Elevations and geographic


coordinates are acquired by every
laser shot
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Data profile in forest area

Forest (Tree height)

Ground surface height


Laser Pulse Modes
Fired laser beams Laser pulse
penetrates to the
ground.
First pulse
(return from top)

Middle pulse Last pulse


(return from branches) (return from the ground)

(from above image)

● :First Pulse
●,●:Middle Pulse
● :Last Pulse
Example of spatial distribution of laser beam profiling. 53
Before Filtering
filtering
Automatic
Manual Filtering
Survei LiDAR dan Sonar

55
Simulasi area tergenang air

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Combination
Survey

Dam and Lake

Orthophoto

57
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….it can be used to extract very detailed images of the
surface. Forest (top left). Barrier island elevation (right).
Lidar can detect elevation with cm accuracy.
Lidar animation on the elevation and topography of a hilly area.
The green color features are trees.
http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories/s781.htm
IV. Satellite remote sensing satellite platforms
and sensors

Landsat MSS Multi-spectral scanner (Landsat satellites 1-5)

A series of five satellites operated by NASA. The first


launched in 1972. The program ended in 1997.
Eighty meter resolution (quite coarse), four bands of
spectral imagery.
• Temporal resolution – area on the Earth’s surface
represented within a pixel of data collected by a remote
sensing sensor. In the example below, the temporal
resolution is 30 meter x 30 meter at left, and 1 meter x 1
meter at right.
Landsat (cont)

• Landsat TM thematic mapper (Landsat 4-5)


– Thirty meter spatial resolution (30 meter x 30 meter sized
pixels)
– Seven band spectral resolution.

• Landsat ETM enhanced thematic mapper (Landsat 7)


– Launched in 1999, improves upon TM sensor
– Offers 15 meter spatial resolution
ETM
Landsat 7
image
• SPOT
– Privately owned and
operated by a French
company
– A series of five satellites
SPOT 1-5: the first
launched in 1986, the latest
launched in 2002
– Provides 4 bands and from
20 to 2.5 meter resolution
– Very high quality images,
however relatively
expensive when compared
with Landsat imagery

SPOT remote sensing imagery


used to track human rights abuses
AVHRR: Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer

• Carried aboard the National


Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration`s (NOAA) Polar
Orbiting Environmental Satellite
series.
• Provides data for investigation of
clouds, land-water boundaries,
snow and ice extent, day and
night cloud distribution, and sea
surface temperature.
• Also used to study and monitor
vegetation conditions in
ecosystems,
AVHRR image of Hurricane Erin in the Gulf of Mexico
• IKONOS
– Operated by the private company Geo-eye, the IKONOS satellite was
launched in 1999 and provides some of the highest resolution imagery
available outside of military and defense operations.
– IKONOS resolution ranges between <1 meter and 4 meters.
– Applications include national security, disaster assessment, urban
planning, and agricultural monitoring.

The Washington Monument with .61-meter resolution.


IKONOS image of World
Trade Center shortly
after 9/11
• GOES (Geostationary operational environmental satellite)

– GOES satellites provide the kind of continuous monitoring


necessary for intensive data analysis. They move with the
Earth in a geosynchronous orbit, which means they track
along the equatorial plane of the Earth at a speed
matching the Earth's rotation. This allows them to hover
continuously over one position on the surface.

– Because they stay above a fixed spot on the surface, they


are used to continuously track weather conditions
• Temporal resolution refers to the repetitive coverage of the ground by the remote-
sensing system. Or how often a satellite circles a specific area on the earth’s
surface.

The path of POES (polar operational environmental satellite), which orbits Earth’s two
poles 14 times each day. By contrast, the GOES satellite (geostationary operational
environmental satellite stays in one place above the Earth along the Equator. The satellite
turns with the Earth rather than orbiting it like POES.
This image was taken by GOES-8 on September 23,
1994. It shows atmospheric water vapor.
Black and White infrared imagery from GOES satellite. White clouds
indicate cooler taller clouds. Dark colors indicate warm surfaces.
• Synthetic Aperture Radar
(SAR)

– Broad-area imaging at
high resolutions.
– Many times imagery must
be acquired in inclement Unmanned US Army aircraft fitted with a
weather or during night as Lynx synthetic aperture radar system.
well as day.
– Synthetic Aperture Radar
(SAR) can see through
weather and clouds better

SAR image of the Pentagon.


Person in photo is holding a sensor similar to the ones used on satellites. By
recording a highly accurate spectral signature for this crop type using this hand-
held spectrometer, scientists can then search for and extract this signature from
satellite imagery and develop detailed maps of this crop type over very large areas.
Applications

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Calculating Object Heights
• Stereoscopic Parallax
• Parallax bar
• Parallax wedge
• Shadow length
– object must be vertical
– on level ground
– height of another
object is known or sun
angle and time of day
are known Calculating the height of the Washington
Monument via stereo parallax

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Applications: Archaeology
• Archaeologists and historical geographers can sometimes identify features hidden
for centuries
– Soil marks
– Crop marks
• positive
• negative
– Shadow marks
– Snow marks

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Applications: Archaeology

Soil marks in fieldInderaja BATAN 79


Applications: Soils
Once
bedrock
geology and
surface
geology are
known, a soil
scientist can
classify soil
types based
on soil tone,
slope, etc.
Soil survey
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Applications: Agriculture
• Census and inventory
– monitor production  plan for shortfall
– predict yields  search for arable lands

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San Andreas fault, Carrizo Plain, CA
Applications: Geology
• Geologic mapping
– Different drainage patterns can reveal what type of
geology is present
– Folds and faults are sometimes more recognizable
from the air

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Applications: Geology
Mineral,
hydrocarbon,
and
groundwater
exploration

Hazards -
landslide and
earthquake
fault
assessment fault running
diagonally from
top left to right
bellow Inderaja BATAN 83
Applications: Forestry
• Forest type
maps -
sometimes
down to
species level
• Appraisal of
damage due
to fire,
insects, and
disease
• Timber
volume
estimates
• Wildlife
habitat
management
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Kesimpulan
• Yang dicari dari Interpretasi Foto dan
Fotogrametri adalah:
• Posisi:
– (X,Y,Z dan menjadi unsur 3D) berbasis bidang proyeksi
yang dipilih
• Konten:
– Unsur Vegetasi
– Unsur Perairan
– Unsur Buatan Manusia
– Unsur Lainnya (karang, pasir tanah kosong dsb)

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