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Fundamental Training
Safety
• Uncontrolled flow rates may cause
– temperature & pressure to reach dangerously high levels
– turbines & other machinery to overspeed
– tanks to spill
Custody Transfer
• the measurement of fluid passing from a supplier to a
customer
– cash register of the system
– example a local gas station measures how much gas being
pumped into the vehicle for billing
– requires high measurement accuracy
Product Integrity
• ensuring right amount of blended materials in for example
processed food & gasoline
RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Flow
Why measure flow?
5 Common Reasons 4
Efficiency Indication
• to determine efficiency of process by
– measuring the amount of each input that has gone into the
product
– comparing the above measurement to the amount of product
producedl
Process Variable Control
• Flow rate is measured & controlled during energy transfer
application, for example
– heat exchanger
» fluid temperature controlled by varying the flow rate
of steam
I/P FIC
FT TT
Liquids Gases
Temperature = Density Temperature = Density
Temperature = Density Temperature = Density
Pressure = No change Pressure = Density
Pressure = No change Pressure = Density
For Liquids,
For Gases,
Molecular Weight of gas
• Specific Gravity =
Molecular Weight of air
PV = nRT
Volume Universal gas constant
Molecular weight
» For an ideal gas Z=1 and PV=nRT(Ideal Gas Law).
» The True Gas Law: PV=ZnRT
» Z & n Can be found in engineering tables.
» R is dependant on units chosen for P, T & V
• Viscosity
– Measure of a fluid’s tendency to resist a shearing
force, or to resist flow
Area Force
Fluid
Thickness •Water is 1cP, peanut butter is 10,000 cP
Fixed Plate
» A greater force is required to shear high viscosity
fluids than low viscosity fluids (viscosity = shear
stress/shear rate).
» Viscosity normally decreases with an increase in
temperature for a liquid, but increases with an
increase in temperature for a gas
RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Flow
Flow terminology
Fluid Properties 10
• Fluid Type
– Clean Fluid
» A fluid that is free from solid particles, e.g. clean water.
– Dirty Fluid
» A fluid containing solid particles, e.g. muddy water.
– Slurry
» A liquid with a suspension of fine solids, e.g. pulp and
paper, or oatmeal.
– Steam
» Water vapour
– Gas
» Natural gas
RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Flow
Flow terminology
Fluid Properties 11
0 2000 4000
m m/s kg/m3
Reynolds (Pipe I.D.) ( Velocity) (Density)
Number Viscosity kg/ms
Rd = ( x v x D)/
RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Flow
Flow terminology
Fluid Properties 13
Example:
Flow conditions; Velocity = 0.5 m/s
RD = V.d. / density = 995.7kg/m³
Temperature = 25°C
= 0.7 / 1000 kg/ms
Viscosity = 0.7cP
= 0.5 x 0.06 x 995.7 x 1000 /0.7 Pipe ID = 60mm
(1 Poise = 0.1 kg/m s)
= 42,673
i) Find the Reynolds number for the fluid.
ii) Identify the type of flow.
(a) Laminar
(b) Transitional
(c) Turbulent
• Accuracy
– % of rate
» uncertainty of flow proportional to flow rate
Rate of Flow % of Rate Accuracy Uncertainty Range
100 gpm ±2% of 100 gpm 98-102 gpm
50 gpm ±2% of 50 gpm 49-51 gpm
20 gpm ±2% of 20 gpm 19.6-20.4 gpm
– % of full scale
» uncertainty of flow remains constant
Rate of Flow % of Rate Accuracy Uncertainty Range
100 gpm ±2% of 100 gpm 98-102 gpm
50 gpm ±2% of 50 gpm 49-51 gpm
20 gpm ±2% of 20 gpm 19.6-20.4 gpm
• Rangeability (Turndown)
– Meter maximum
» maximum flow rate that a flowmeter is capable of
reading
commonly used for magnetic, vortex and Coriolis
meters
– Application maximum
» maximum flowrate that occurs in the process flow
of a particular application
commonly used for orifice plates, flow nozzles, and
venturi tubes
• Repeatability
– the ability of a flowmeter to produce the same
measurement each time it measures a flow
RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Flow
Flowmeter selection
Classes of Flowmeters 21
Flow Technologies
•. Displacement Meters
– measure volume flow rate Qv directly by
repeatedly trapping a sample of the fluid.
» total volume = sample volume * number of samples
High pressure loss
• Head Meters (DP Flow Meters)
– measures fluid flow indirectly by creating &
measuring a differential pressure by means of a
restriction to the fluid flow
• Velocity Meters
– FLOW is measured inferentially by measuring
VELOCITY through a known AREA.
» With this indirect method, the flow measured is the
volume flow rate, Qv. Stated in its simplest term
» QV = A * v where
A: cross-sectional area of the pipe
v: fluid velocity
» m3/s = m2 * m/s
A reliable flow measurement is dependent upon the correct
measurement of A and v.
• Mass Meters
– Infer the mass flow rate via the equation;
» Qm = Qv * where,
Qm: the mass flow rate
Qv : the volume flow rate
: fluid density
» kg/s = m3/s * kg.m3
– Consist of 2 devices;
» One device will measure fluid velocity
» The other device will measure fluid density
Line Pressure
(Primary Element)
Orifice Plate
H.P. L.P.
QV= K DP
Constant
RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Flow
DP flowmeter
DP Flow Equation 26
Primary FE
Element QV= K DP
Outputs represent true flow only under specified conditions.
Using “constants” in flow equations assumes a static flow
environment.
For DP flowmeter output to represent true flow, the following
fluid properties must be constant:
Fluid density
Fluid viscosity,
RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Flow
DP flowmeter
DP Flow Equation 27
Pressure
Transmitter Flow Computer
Pressure
(DP) FIC Flow
Transmitter PT FC
(AP) FT Controller
TT Temperature
Transmitter + Control
Sensor Valve
Primary
FE
Element
QM= K DP*(P/T)
QM= N Cd E Y d2 DP*(P/T)
K
These constants takes care of
velocity of the fluid
friction of the fluid in contact with the pipe
viscosity of the fluid
to give a fully compensated dynamic flow measurement
RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Flow
DP flowmeter
DP Flow Equation 30
CONSTANT
RD
102 103 104 105
LIQUIDS GASES
RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Flow
DP flowmeter
DP Flow Equation 32
0.65
( 4” Flange Taps )
0.64
Discharge Coefficient
0.61
0.6
0.59
4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
0 5 10 1 10 1.5 10 2 10 2.5 10 3 10 3.5 10 4 10 4.5 10 5 10
Pipe Reynolds Number
Beta = .75
Beta = .6
Beta = .5
Orifice Diam. / Pipe Diam. = Beta
Beta = .4
Beta = .2
d/D =
0.95
0.85
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
Differential Pressure (inH2O)
1000 psi
Line 250 psi
Pressure 100 psi
50 psi
( k=1.3, beta = 0.6 )
20 psi
PRIMARY
Cross
section Cross section
Area A1 Flow Area A2
Q (Actual) = C x A 1 x A2 2 x ( P1 -P2 )
x
( A12 - A22 )
FLOW
D d
NOZZLE
RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Flow
DP flowmeter
Pitot Tube 38
Fluid Flow
Blunt Blunt
H.P. L.P.
Front Rear
Cross section
of Annubar
Fluid Flow
• Advantages:
– Can be inserted through a small opening.
– Can sample the velocity at many points.
– Low pressure drop, non-obstrusive.
• Disadvantages:
– Pitot traverse requires a technician, and is time-
consuming.
– Pitot tube is fragile (not suited for industrial app.)
– DP signal is low.
– Accuracy depends on the velocity profile.
– Easily plugged by foreign material in the fluid.
• high accuracy
• normally lab-calibrated
• work equally well with short and long straight pipes
• for customers who have limited room for straight
piping requirements
• can be used with some dirty fluids
• Variable-area flowmeters
– float inside the tapered tube rises in response to fluid flow rate
– pressure is higher at the bottom than the top of the tapered tube
– float rests where the dp between upper & lower surfaces of the
float balances the weight of the float
– flowrate read direct from scale or electronically
• commonly used for indication only
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Low cost • Square-root head/flow
• Easily installed and/or relationship
replaced • High permanent
• No moving parts pressure loss
• Suitable for most gases • Low accuracy
or liquids • Flow rage normal 4:1
• Available in a wide • Accuracy affected by
range of sizes and wear and/or damage of
models the flow primary element
especially with corrosive
fluids.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Obstructionless flow • Liquid must be
• Unaffected by viscosity, electrically conductive
pressure, temperature • Not suitable for gases
and density • Can be expensive,
• Good accuracy particularly in small
• No RD constraints sizes
• Suitable for slurries and • Must be installed so that
corrosive, nonlubricating, the meter is always full
or abrasive liquids
• Wide rangeability (30:1)
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• High accuracy • Moving parts subject to wear
• Rangeability 10:1 • Can be damaged by
• Very good repeatability overspeeding
• Low pressure drops • High temperature,
• Can be used on high overspeeding, corrosion,
viscosity fluids (but with abrasion and pressure transient
lower turndowns) can shorten bearing life
• Rather expensive
• Filtration required in dirty fluids
Vortices
RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Flow
Velocity Meter
Vortex Flowmeter 52
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Good accuracy • Not suitable for abrasive or
• Usually wide flow range dirty fluids
• Used with liquids, gases • Straight upstream pipe
and steam required equal to 30 times
• Minimal maintenance (no pipe diameter or longer
moving parts) • Limited by low velocity (RD
• Good linearity over the < 10,000)
working range
FLOW
Downstream Transducer
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Non-intrusive, • Maximum temperature 150°C
obstructionless • Particular fluid conditions are
• Wide rangeability (10:1) required (TOF-type: clean
• Easy to install (especially liquids; Doppler-type: particles
for clamp-on version) or impurities in the stream)
• Cost virtually • Not very high accuracy (about
independent of pipe size ±2%)
• The flow measurement is • Doppler flowmeter clamp-on
bi-directional type requires a pipe of
homogeneous material
(cement or fibreglass linings
must be avoided)
RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Flow
Mass Meter
Coriolis Meter 56
• Operating Principle
– Uses a obsructionless U-shaped tube as a sensor
– Applies Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion to determine flow rate.
– Force = mass x acceleration
– The flow tube vibrates at its natural frequency by an
electromagnetic drive system.
• Coriolis Effect
– Fluid flowing through the upward moving tube, pushes
downward against the tube.
– Fluid flowing out through the downward moving tube,
pushes upward against the tube.
– The combination of upward and downward resistive forces
causes the sensor tube to twist (coriolis effect).
• Signal Transmission
– The amount the tube twist is proportional to the mass flow
rate of the fluid flowing through it.
– Electromagnetic sensors located at each side of the tube
measures the respective velocity of the vibrating tube at
these points.
– The sensor sends this information to the transmitter which
gives an output signal directly proportional to mass flow
rate.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• High accuracy: ±0.25% • Expensive
• Relatively low pressure • Mounting is critical (no
drops vibration)
• Suitable for liquid and • Heat-tracing is required
gas flow in some applications
• Easy to install
• Flow range (10:1)
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• No moving parts • Meter sensitive to fluid heat
• Suitable for large size conductivity, viscosity, and
pipe (insertion type) specific heat
• Good rangeability (50:1) • Mostly gas service (only rare
• Accuracy: ±1% FS liquid service)
• Low permanent pressure • Specific heat of the fluid
losses must be known and constant
i.e. the gas must have a
constant composition
• Proper operation requires no
heat losses due to
conductive exchanges
though the pipe walls
RMT Training - 05 /98 Level 1 - Flow
Displacement flowmeter
Oval Gear Meter 62
Magmeter Conductive Fluids Yes Any 0.2 - 36in 1400psig 175°C Very Low
Which of the following directly measures mass flow rate, and which
volume flow rate. Indicate “M” or “V”
2. Magnetic Flowmeter [ ]
3. Vortex Meter [ ]
4. Coriolis Meter [ ]
5. Non-compensated DP Flowmeter [ ]
6. Fully-compensated DP Flowmeter [ ]