CIRCADIAN RHYTHM

I.A. Eka Widiastuti

Definition
• A daily rhythmical change in the biochemical,
physiological and behavioral process of our
bodies (“body clock”)
- sleep/wakefulness cycle
- body temperature
- patterns of hormone secretion
- blood pressure
- digestive secretion
- levels of alertness
- reaction times
• Circadian rhythm have a period of
approximately 24-25 hours
• Regulates our daily activities (sleep, waking,
eating and body temperature regulation)
• Bright light late in the day can lengthen the
circadian rhythm
• The synchronized rhythm with the day/night
cycle is termed a diurnal rhythm
Circadian Rhythm Mechanism

• Mechanisms of the circadian rhythms include

the following:
– The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
– Genes that produce certain proteins
– Melatonin levels
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

• The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is part of

the hypothalamus and the main control center
of the circadian rhythms of sleep and
temperature.
– Located above the optic chiasm.
– A tiny cluster of about 10 thousand nerve
cells
Fig. 9-4, p. 269
Con’t

• The SCN is genetically controlled and

independently generates the circadian
rhythms.
• Damage to the SCN results in less consistent
body rhythms that are no longer synchronized
to environmental patterns of light and dark
Genes

• Two types of genes are responsible for

generating the circadian rhythm.
1. Period - produce proteins called Per
2. Timeless - produce proteins called Tim
• Per and Tim proteins increase the activity of
certain kinds of neurons in the SCN that
regulate sleep and waking.
• Mutations in the Per gene result in odd
circadian rhythms.
Fig. 9-5, p. 270
Melatonin

• The SCN regulates waking and sleeping by

controlling activity levels in other areas of the
brain.
• The SCN regulates the pineal gland, an
endocrine gland located posterior to the
thalamus.
• The pineal gland secretes melatonin, a
hormone that increases sleepiness.
Con’t

• Melatonin secretion usually begins 2 to 3

hours before bedtime.
• Melatonin feeds back to reset the biological
clock through its effects on receptors in the
SCN.
• Melatonin taken in the afternoon can phase-
advance the internal clock and can be used
as a sleep aid.
Stimuli

• Light is critical for periodically resetting our

circadian rhythms.
• A zeitgeber is a term used to describe any
stimulus that resets the circadian rhythms.
• Exercise, noise, meals, and temperature are
others zeitgebers.
Con’t

• Light resets the SCN via a small branch of the

optic nerve known as the retinohypothalamic
path.
– Travels directly from the retina to the SCN.
• The retinohypothalamic path comes from a
special population of ganglion cells that have
their own photopigment called melanopsin.
– The cells respond directly to light and do
not require any input from the rods or
cones.
 Jet Lag

• Jet lag refers to physiological desynchronization

caused by transmeridian (east-west) travel
between different time zones
• Symptoms are vary and depend on several
factors;
- how many time zone were travelled
- individual’s age
- state of health
- alcohol consumption
- how much sleep during flight
 Cont’d
• Typical jet lag symptoms:
- extreme fatique
- sleep disturbances
- headaches
-loss of consentration
- disorientation
- malaise
- sluggishness
- gastrointestinal upset
- loss of appetite
 Cont’d

• Traveling west “phase-delays” our circadian

rhythms.
• Traveling east “phase-advances” our
circadian rhythms
Fig. 9-6, p. 272
 SLEEP

• Sleep is a specialized state that serves a

variety of important functions including:
– conservation of energy.
– repair and restoration.
– learning and memory consolidation.
Sleep Function

• The original function of sleep was to probably

conserve energy.
• Conservation of energy is accomplished via:
– Decrease in body temperature of about 1-2
Celsius degrees in mammals.
– Decrease in muscle activity.
• Sleep enables restorative processes in the
brain to occur.
– Proteins are rebuilt.
– Energy supplies are replenished.
• Moderate sleep deprivation results in
impaired concentration, irritability,
hallucinations, tremors, unpleasent mood,
and decreased responses of the immune
system.
• Sleep also plays an important role in
enhancing learning and strengthening
memory.
– Performance on a newly learned task is
often better the next day if adequate sleep
is achieved during the night.
• Increased brain activity occurs in the area of
the brain activated by a newly learned task
while one is asleep.
– Activity also correlates with improvement in
activity seen the following day.
• People vary in their need for sleep.
– Most sleep about 8 hours.
• Prolonged sleep deprivation in laboratory
animals results in:
– Increased metabolic rate, appetite and
body temperature.
– Immune system failure and decrease in
brain activity.
Fig. 9-18, p. 289
 Stages of Sleep and Brain Activity

• The electroencephalograph (EEG) allowed

researchers to discover that there are various
stages of sleep.
• Over the course of about 90 minutes:
– a sleeper goes through sleep stages 1, 2,
3, and 4
– then returns through the stages 3 and 2 to
a stage called REM.
 Cont’d

• Alpha waves are present when one begins a

state of relaxation.
• Stage 1 sleep is when sleep has just begun.
– the EEG is dominated by irregular, jagged,
low voltage waves.
– brain activity begins to decline.
 Cont’d

• Stage 2 sleep is characterized by the

presence of:
– Sleep spindles - 12 to 14Hz waves during
a burst that lasts at least half a second.
– K-complexes - a sharp high-amplitude
negative wave followed by a smaller,
slower positive wave.
 Cont’d

• Stage 3 and stage 4 together constitute slow

wave sleep (SWS) and is characterized by:
– EEG recording of slow, large amplitude
wave.
– Slowing of heart rate, breathing rate, and
brain activity.
– Highly synchronized neuronal activity.
 Cont’d

• Rapid eye movement sleep (REM) are

periods characterized by rapid eye
movements during sleep.
• Also known as “paradoxical sleep” because it
is deep sleep in some ways, but light sleep in
other ways.
• EEG waves are irregular, low-voltage and
fast.
• Postural muscles of the body are more
relaxed than other stages.
Cont’d

1. Alpha activity:
• A smooth electrical activity of 8 – 12 Hz
recorded from the brain; generally
associated with a state of relaxation
2. Beta activity:
• Irregular electrical activity of 13 – 30 Hz
recorded from the brain; generally
associated with a state of arousal.
Cont’d

3. Theta activity:
• EEG activity of 3.5 – 7.5 Hz that occurs
intermittently during early stages of slow
wave sleep and REM sleep
4. Delta activity:
• Regular, synchronous electrical activity
of less than 4 Hz recorded from the
brain; occurs during the deepest stages
of slow-wave sleep
Fig. 9-9, p. 276
 Copyright © 2004 Allyn and
33 Bacon
34 Copyright © 2004 Allyn and Bacon
 Stages of Sleep and Brain Activity

• Stages other than REM are referred to as

non-REM sleep (NREM).
• When one falls asleep, they progress through
stages 1, 2, 3, and 4 in sequential order.
• After about an hour, the person begins to
cycle back through the stages from stage 4 to
stages 3 and 2 and than REM.
• The sequence repeats with each cycle lasting
approximately 90 minutes.
 Stages of Sleep and Brain Activity

• Stage 3 and 4 sleep predominate early in the

night.
– The length of stages 3 and 4 decrease as
the night progresses.
• REM sleep is predominant later in the night.
– Length of the REM stages increases as the
night progresses.
• REM is strongly associated with dreaming,
but people also report dreaming in other
stages of sleep.
 Cont’d

• During REM sleep:

– Activity increases in the pons (triggers the
onset of REM sleep), limbic system,
parietal cortex and temporal cortex.
– Activity decreases in the primary visual
cortex, the motor cortex, and the
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
 Cont’d

• REM sleep is also associated with a

distinctive pattern of high-amplitude electrical
potentials known as PGO waves.
• Waves of neural activity are detected first in
the pons and then in the lateral geniculate of
the hypothalamus, and then the occipital
cortex.
• REM deprivation results in high density of
PGO waves when allowed to sleep normally
• Cells in the pons send messages to the
spinal cord which inhibit motor neurons that
control the body’s large muscles.
– Prevents motor movement during REM
sleep.
• REM is also regulated by serotonin and
acetylcholine.
– Drugs that stimulate Ach receptors quickly
move people to REM.
– Serotonin interrupts or shortens REM.
Fig. 9-13, p. 281
 Brain Structure and Neurotransmitter

• Various brain mechanisms are associated

with wakefulness and arousal.
• The reticular formation is a part of the
midbrain that extends from the medulla to the
forebrain and is responsible for arousal.
Table 9-1, p. 280
• The pontomesencephalon is a part of the
midbrain that contributes to cortical arousal.
– Axons extend to the thalamus and basal
forebrain which release acetylcholine and
glutamate
– produce excitatory effects to widespread
areas of the cortex.
• Stimulation of the pontomesencephalon
awakens sleeping individuals and increases
alertness in those already awake.
• The locus coeruleus is small structure in the
pons whose axons release norepinephrine to
arouse various areas of the cortex and
increase wakefulness.
– Usually dormant while asleep.
Fig. 9-11, p. 279
• The basal forebrain is an area anterior and
dorsal to the hypothalamus containing cells
that extend throughout the thalamus and
cerebral cortex.
• Cells of the basal forebrain release the
inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA.
• Inhibition provided by GABA is essential for
sleep.
• Other axons from the basal forebrain release
acetylcholine which is excitatory and
increases arousal.
Fig. 9-12, p. 280
• The hypothalamus contains neurons that
release “histamine” to produce widespread
excitatory effects throughout the brain.
• A neurotransmitter implicated in control of
wakefulness and arousal; a compound
synthesized from histidine, an amino acid
• Anti-histamines produce sleepiness.
• Orexin is a peptide neurotransmitter released
in a pathway from the lateral nucleus of the
hypothalamus highly responsible for the
ability to stay awake.
 Factors Affecting for Sleep

• Decreased arousal required for sleep is

accomplished via the following ways:
1. Decreasing the temperature of the brain
and the body.
2. Decreasing stimulation by finding a quiet
environment.
3. Accumulation of adenosine in the brain to
inhibit the basal forebrain cells
responsible for arousal.
– Caffeine blocks adenosine receptors.
 Cont’d

4. Accumulation of prostaglandins that

accumulate in the body throughout the day
to induce sleep.
– Prostaglandins stimulate clusters of
neurons that inhibit the hypothalamic
cells responsible for increased arousal.
 Sleep Disorder

• Insomnia is a sleep disorder associated with

inability to fall asleep or stay asleep.
– Results in inadequate sleep.
– Caused by a number of factors including
noise, stress, pain medication.
– Can also be the result of disorders such as
epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, depression,
anxiety or other psychiatric conditions.
– Dependence on sleeping pills and shifts in
the circadian rhythms can also result in
insomnia.
Cont’d

• Sleep apnea is a sleep disorder characterized

by the inability to breathe while sleeping for a
prolonged period of time.
• Consequences include sleepiness during the
day, impaired attention, depression, and
sometimes heart problems.
• Cognitive impairment can result from loss of
neurons due to insufficient oxygen levels.
• Causes include, genetics, hormones, old age,
and deterioration of the brain mechanisms
that control breathing and obesity.
 Cont’d
• Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder characterized by
frequent periods of sleepiness.
• Four main symptoms include:
– Gradual or sudden attack of sleepiness.
– Occasional cataplexy - muscle weakness
triggered by strong emotions.
– Sleep paralysis- inability to move while asleep
or waking up.
– Hypnagogic hallucinations- dreamlike
experiences the person has difficulty
distinguishing from reality.
 Cont’d

• REM behavior disorder is associated with

vigorous movement during REM sleep.
– Usually associated with acting out dreams.
– Occurs mostly in the elderly and in older
men with brain diseases such as
Parkinson’s.
– Associated with damage to the pons
(inhibit the spinal neurons that control large
muscle movements).
SELAMAT BELAJAR