Introduction to Finite

Element Concepts

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 Overview of the basic
mechanical /stress terms

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 Review : Stress values
 Stresses

Normal Stress : normal to cutting plane

Shear Stress : tangential to cutting plane

Normal and Shear Stress values at Point P

depend on :

- Location of Point P on the cutting plane

- Cutting direction

=> Stress behavior at Point P can be described

by the Stress tensor S

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 Review : Stress values
Normal Stress values: The normal of a face and the normal
xx = x z stress vector have the same direction.
yy = y
zz = z zz

zx zy
yz
xz
yy
Shear Stress values: xx xy yx
xy = yx y
xz = zx
yz = zy Shear Stresses in two perpendicular
x cutting directions at a point have the
same value.

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Review : Stress values
 Stress Tensor S :
6 independent stress values from 3 perpendicular
cutting planes at a point describe the stress behavior
completely.

X xy xz
S = xy y yz
xz yz z

The stress tensor is symmetrical .

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Review : Stress values
 Example : Plane Stress
= stress behavior in a plane membrane
A plane membrane is under loading only
in its plane.
The thickness of the membrane is small
compared to its two other dimensions.
No forces in z-direction : xz = yz = z = 0

x xy
S =
xy y

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Review : Stress values
 Coordinate Transformation (Plane Stress):

 = ½ (x+ y) + ½ (x- y)cos2 + xysin2

 = ½ (x+ y) - ½ (x- y)cos2 - xysin2

 = - ½ (x- y)sin2 + xycos2

 - Angle between x- and -Axis

y



x
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 Review : Stress values
 Invariant of Transformation (Plane Stress) :
x+ y = +  = 1+ 2 Sum of normal stress values

x2 + 2xy2 + y2 =  2 + 22 +  2 = 12+ 22

 Special Case : Hydrostatic Stress behavior

 x=  y =   =   Same normal stress values in all
cutting directions

xy =  = 0 Shear stress values are equal Zero

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 Review : Stress values
 Principal Stresses (Plane Stress) :
= Maximum values of Normal Stresses under the condition :

d/d = 0 and d/d = 0

this leads to : - (x- y)sin2 + 2xycos2 = 0

2xy
=> tan 2* = tan 2(* + /2) =
 x-  y

* and (* + /2) are two perpendicular cutting directions,

called Principal Directions .

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 Review : Stress values
 Trigonometric transformation :
1  x-  y
cos2* = =
[ 1 + tan22* ]½ [ (x- y )2 + 4xy2 ]½

tan2* 2xy
sin2* = =
[ 1 + tan22* ]½ [ (x- y )2 + 4xy2 ]½

 Principal Stresses 1 and  2 : 1 >  2

1,2 = ½ (x+ y)  ½ [ (x- y )2 + 4xy2 ]½

(*) = (* + /2) = 0 !! No Shear Stresses

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 Review : Stress values
 Principal Shear Stress (Plane Stress) :

= Maximum values of Shear Stresses under the condition :

d/d = 0

this leads to : - (x- y)cos2 - 2xysin2 = 0

 x-  y
=> tan2** = tan2(** + /2) = -
2xy

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 Review : Stress values
 Because : tan2** = - 1 / tan2*
2** and 2* are oriented perpendicular to each other,
this results in an angle of 45o between the direction of
maximum shear stress ** and the direction of maximum
normal stress *.
 Principal shear stress max :
max =  ½ [ (x- y )2 + 4xy2 ]½
or max =  ½ (1- 2)
Using ** in  and  results in a Non-zero value of
normal stress value M :
M(**) = ½ (x + y) = ½ (1 + 2)

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 Review : Stress values
 Equivalent stresses V :

There is a 3–dimensional stress behaviour in an arbitrary part.

Experimental Data have been received from a tension

specimen (1-dimensional stress behaviour).

The equivalent stress is used to compare 3-dimensional

stress behavior with the 1-dimensional stress behaviour
of the tension test.

Different strength hypotheses have been developed.

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 Review : Stress values
 Equivalent stresses V :

Normal stress hypothesis :

Assumption : The maximum Normal stress value is

responsible for the material load

V = 1

Used for : brittle materials

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 Review : Stress values
 Equivalent stresses V :

Shear stress hypothesis :

(1864 described by H.Tresca)

Assumption : The the material load is characterized

by the maximum stress value.

Plane Stress: Max = ½ (1 - 2 ) => V = 1 - 2

V = [( x - y)2 + 4 xy2 ]½

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 Review : Stress values
 Equivalent stresses V :
von Mises stress hypothesis :
(named after Huber (1872-1950), v. Mises (1883-1953)
and Hencky (1885-1951))

Assumption : The material load is characterized by

the energy which is used for the change
of the shape without a change in the
volume of the part
Plane Stress:

V = [ 12 + 22 - 12 ]½ = [ x2 + y2 - xy + 3 xy2 ]½

Used for : ductile materials

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 Review : Strain values
 Deformation in space :
Kinematical relation
Strains :
x = u/x , y = v/y , z = w/z
Angular distortions :
xy = u/y + v/x , xz = u/z + w/x , yz = v/z + w/y
Strain tensor V : symmetric

x ½xy ½xz
V = ½ xy y ½ yz
½ xz ½yz z

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 Review : Strain values
 Plane Strain :
u+(u/y)dx Assumption : Small Deformation
(u/y)dy Strain :
R’
x = u/x , y = v/y
S’
v+(v/y)dy Gliding or Shearing
R (Angular distortion)
S
 = u/y ,  = v/x
 xy =  +  = u/y + v/x

dy /2-xy Q’ (v/x)dx
Strain tensor

x ½xy
P’ v+(v/x)dx
v Q V =
P dx
u u+(u/x)dx
½ xy y
y

x
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Review : Strain values
 Coordinate transformation (Plane Strain) :

 = ½(x+ y) + ½(x- y)cos2 + ½xysin2

 = ½(x+ y) - ½(x- y)cos2 - ½xysin2

½ = - ½(x- y)sin2 + ½xycos2

 - Angle between x- and - axis

 y



x
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 Review : Strain values
 Principal strains (Plane Strain) :

= Maximum strain values under the condition :

d/d = 0 and d/d = 0

this leads to : - (x- y)sin2* + xycos2* = 0

xy
=> tan 2* = tan 2(* + /2) =
x - y

* and ( * + /2 ) are two perpendicular

oriented cutting directions.

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 Review : Strain values
 Principal strains (Plane Strain) 1 and  2
1,2 = ½ (x+ y)  ½ [ (x- y )2 + xy2 ]½

(*) = (* + /2) = 0 !! No angular distortion

 Maximum angular distortion : d/d = 0

- (x- y)cos2** - xysin2** = 0
 x-  y
=> tan 2** = tan 2(** + /2) = -
xy

=> M(**) = ½ (x + y) = ½ (1 + 2) ( Strains  0 )

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Introduction to FEM
 FEM = Finite Element Method

 FEM is a numerical approximation method,

which is used for the calculation and optimization
of the structural behavior of mechanical parts !

 Finite Element
=
Discrete structural description of continua with
help of mathematical formulations

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Historical Overview

 1950´s: Application of matrix methods for structural

analysis
 1950´s: Introduction of the displacement- and stiffness
method for complex aerospace structures
 1960: Birth date of the name “Finite Elements“
 1970´s: FEM applications mainly in the aerospace and the
automotive industry (NASA -> NASTRAN)
 1980´s: Introduction of powerful computer graphics
 1997: FEM is the standard tool for structural analysis

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Seminar Contents
 Basic Theory of FEM
 Element Types and their Use
 Geometric model
 Finite Element model
 Material Data
 Element Properties
 Loads
 Boundary Conditions
 Postprocessing

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Introduction to FEM
 Finite Elements have simple geometric shapes,
like triangle, rectangle, cube.

 The points at the corners are called Node or Grid point.

Nodes connect the elements.

 The description of the structural behaviour inside an

element is done by the calculation of the nodal
displacements (= discretization) in combination with
special shape function (= mathematical functions used
for integration across the element region)

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Introduction to FEM
 Analytical preparation
Principle of virtual work
=
Minimal change of energy due to external load
A static equilibrium between internal and external forces is
reached when the Elastic Potential  becomes minimal;
this means the first derivation of  is Zero.
/ui = 0 - System of equations with n equations
for n unknown displacements
ui - Displacement of the i-th degree of
freedom

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 Introduction to FEM
 Elastic Potential  (Potential Energy)

 = ½  T dV -  uTfK dV -  uTfV dV -  uTfA dA

 Strain vector : x , y , z , xy , yz , zx

 Stress vector : x , y , z , xy , yz , zx
u Vector of displacements : ux , uy , uz , rx , ry, rz

fK Vector of external forces and moments on nodes

fV Vector of inertial forces (Acceleration, Rotation)
fA Vector of forces on faces (Pressure)

(Thermal load is not considered here.)

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Introduction to FEM
 Continuous – Discrete displacement relations

The continuous displacement field in an element u(x,y,z)

will be described by Shape functions N(x,y,z) and the
discrete nodal displacements of the element ui.

u(x,y,z) = N(x,y,z) * ui

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Introduction to FEM
 Strain – Displacement relations

Strains can be derived from the displacement

according to the theory of linear elasticity by the
use of the Cauchy-Matrix D (Differential operator).

(x,y,z) = D * u(x,y,z)

Using the Continuous – Discrete displacement relation

(x,y,z) = DN(x,y,z) * ui

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Introduction to FEM
 Stress – Strain relation

For a linear material the Hooke’s Matrix E states

the relation between stress and strain.

(x,y,z) = E * (x,y,z)

Using the Strain – Displacement relation

(x,y,z) = ED * u(x,y,z)

Using the Continuous – Discrete displacement relation

(x,y,z) = EDN(x,y,z) * ui

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 Introduction to FEM
 Getting system of linear equations

All preceding equations will be put into the equation of the

elastic potential . Creating the derivates /ui = 0 we
get the basic equation of the FE-method in the linear static.
K ui = F
Global stiffness matrix : Sum of elemental stiffness matrixes
K =  (DN)TE(DN) dV (Maxwell´s Law : Matrix is symmetric)

External nodal forces (inertial loads and loads on faces are

been represented by equivalent nodal forces

F =  NTfK dV +  NTfV dV +  NTfA dA

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Introduction to FEM
 Example : Triangular element (Plane stress)

Y uy3
ux3

uy2
ux2

uy1
ux1

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 Introduction to FEM
 Assumption : Linear shape function

ux(x,y) = a0 + a1x + a2y

uy(x,y) = b0 + b1x + b2y

re-written in matrix form :

a0 b0
a1 b1
ux(x,y) = [ 1 x y ] a2 uy(x,y) = [ 1 x y ] b2

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 Introduction to FEM
 Using linear shape function for all 3 nodes :

ux1 = a0 + a1x1 + a2y1 uy1 = b0 + b1x1 + b2y1

ux2 = a0 + a1x2 + a2y2 uy2 = b0 + b1x2 + b2y2
ux3 = a0 + a1x3 + a2y3 uy3 = b0 + b1x3 + b2y3

re-written in matrix form :

ux1 1 x1 y1 a0 uy1 1 x1 y1 b0
ux2 = 1 x2 y2 a1 uy1 = 1 x2 y2 b1
ux3 1 x3 y3 a2 uy1 1 x3 y3 b2

uxi = G * a uyi = G * b

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 Introduction to FEM
 a and b as function of uxi and uyi :

a = G-1 * uxi b = G-1 * uyi

 Getting the Continuous – Discrete displacement relations :

ux1
ux2
ux(x,y) = [ 1 x y ] G-1 uxi = N(x,y) uxi = [ N1 N2 N3 ] ux3

uy1
uy2
uy(x,y) = [ 1 x y ] G-1 uyi = N(x,y) uyi = [ N1 N2 N3 ] uy3

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Introduction to FEM
 Strains (Plane stress) :
x(x,y) = ux(x,y)/x
y(x,y) = uy(x,y)/y
xy(x,y) = ux(x,y)/y + uy(x,y)/x

re-written in matrix form :

x(x,y) /x 0 ux(x,y)

y(x,y) = 0 /y uy(x,y)
xy(x,y) /y /x

 = D * u

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Introduction to FEM
 Using discrete nodal displacements

ux1
ux2
ux3
x (x,y) N1,x N2,x N3,x 0 0 0 uy1
y (x,y) = 0 0 0 N1,y N2,y N3,y uy2
xy(x,y) N1,y N2,y N3,y N1,x N2,x N3,x uy3

Linear Shape function Ni = Ni(x,y)

Derivatives : Ni,x = const. , Ni,y = const.

=> constant strain value over the element region

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Introduction to FEM
 Stresses , isotropic Material
x (x,y) E 1  0 x (x,y)
y (x,y) =  1 0 y (x,y)
xy(x,y) 1-2 0 0 (1- )/2 xy(x,y)
 = H * 
Shear Modulus : G = E/ 2(1+  )
Poisson Ratio : 0 <  < 0.5
Because all strains (x,y) are constant values, all stress
value are constant over the element region as well !!

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 How does FEM work?
Calculate the area of a circle

 Solve a number of simple problems, add them all up and

get the answer of a complex problem
 Divide a complex problem into simple ones
 Divide complex geometry into simple objects which we
can understand (Lines, Squares, Cubes)
 Use the computer to do millions (and millions, …) of
numerical operations
 Use modern hardware equipment to present the results
graphically

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Mathematical Model
Formulation of simple
elements

K = Spring stiffness (Ea/L).

u

U = Spring elongation
F
F = Spring force

K*U=F

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Mathematical Model
Dividing of the geometry into simple
elements and assembling all elements
[K] = Stiffness matrix of the part
(Sum of all elements)
{U} = Components of the displacements
of the single nodes of the part
{F} = Components of the loads of
the single nodes of the part
[K] *{U} = {F}

Solving the matrix equation with

thousands of unknowns

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Theoretical Background
 A given problem is discretized by dividing the
original domain into simply shaped subdomains, the
so called elements.
Y uy
ux

[ k ]e { u }e = { f }e
X
element level

 Each element it quite simple, and the program can

figure out its mechanical properties quite easily
 By summation of all the element contributions one
gets the whole model behavior

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Terminology
 Each element is connected to its neighbour only at
a number of points, called nodes

 Each node has 6 independent possibilities to move:

3 translational and 3 rotational

 These independent possibilities to move are called

degrees of freedom (DOF’s)

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 Terminology
Y

Ry ,My
Translations
Tx, Ty, and Tz (1, 2, and 3)
Ty ,Fy
Rotations
Rx ,Mx
Rx, Ry, and Rz (4, 5, and 6)
Tz ,Fz
Tx ,Fx X
Forces
Fx, Fy, and Fz
Rz ,Mz
Moments
Mx, My, and Mz Z Cartesian Coordinate System

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Steps in an FE Analysis

Geometry

Elements Displacements
Stresses
Loads Forces
Strains

Analysis
Solver Analysis Results
Model

Contour Plots
Constraints X-Y-Plots
Listings
Materials

Properties

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FEM Program algorithm
 Represent continuous model as a collection of
elements and connections
 Formulate element stiffness matrices [k]
 Assemble all element stiffness matrices to a global
stiffness matrix [K]
 Generate load vector [F]
 Solve matrix [F]=[K][x] with respect to [x]
 Calculate element stresses and strains

We shall illustrate this using a simple example...

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Continuous Model
F = 1000 N

A = 20mm2
E = 210000 N/mm2 L = 50 mm

A = 50mm2
L = 50 mm
E = 210000 N/mm2

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 Discrete model
We make one-dimensional elements with two
degrees of freedom
Node 3
A = 20mm 2

E = 210000 N/mm2 Element 2

L = 50 mm
Node 2
A = 50mm2
E = 210000 N/mm2 Element 1
L = 50 mm
Node 1

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 Element stiffness matrices

For one element, the stiffness relation is

 AE AE 
 L 
k L 
AE AE 
 
 L L 

Each of the element matrices then becomes:

 84  84  210  210

k1     1000 N / mm 2
k2    1000 N / mm2
 84 84   210 210 

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 Global stiffness matrix
The Global stiffness matrix is assembled by combining the
matrices at the appropriate degrees of freedom for each
node

 84  84 0 0 0 0 
K   84 84 0 1000 N / mm  0 210  210 1000 N / mm
 0 0 0 0  210 210 

 84  84 0 
K   84 294  210 1000 N / mm
 0  210 210 

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Apply boundary conditions

Node 1’s DOF is constrained, and is therefore a nulled,

giving the effective stiffness matrix

 x1  0
x   x2  x   x2 
 x3   x3 

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Load Vector

The only force is acting at Node 3, giving the Load Vector

 0 
F   0  N
 1000

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Solve the matrix equation
The simple equation is now solved, giving the
deformations
F   K  x
 0   84  84 0  0
 0    84 294  210   x 1000 N
     2
 1000  0  210 210   x3 
 x1   0 
 x    0.012 mm
 2  
 x3   0.017

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Calculate element forces and stresses
Using well known formula, the strains and
stresses are calculated for each element

L  0.012  0
1    0.00024
L 50
L  0.017  (0.012)
2    0.00010
L 50
 1  E  1  50.4 N / mm2
 2  E   2  21.0 N / mm2

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Introduction to FEM
 What an FEA user has to specify :

 Choose the element type

 Creation of the Finite Element Mesh
 Specification of the material properties
 Specification of the element properties
 Verification of the Mesh quality
 Application of the loads and boundary conditions
 Specification of the options of the desired analysis type
 Request of the desired results
 Interpretation of the results

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The Software Returns:

Static or time-dependent:
 Deformations
 Stresses
 Strains
Others:
 Eigenfrequencies
 Stability/Buckling Load Factors
Other Types of Analysis will Return other Results

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 Element Types

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Standard Elements
First order

Line Triangle/Quadrilateral Hexahedral Tetrahedral

( tri/quad) ( hex ) ( tet )
Second order

Line Triangle/Quadrilateral Hexahedral 10-noded Tetrahedral

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Element selection criteria

Which element type should be used?

 Beams, plates or solids?

 Quadrilateral or triangle?
 Hexahedral, pentahedral or tetrahedral ?
 Higher or lower order?

The choice of the element type is strongly dependent

on the structure to be analyzed

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Beam Elements
 1 - Dimensional elements
 6 DOFS
 First and second order
 Cross section constant or varying along the element
length
 Transfers axial forces, torsional and bending moments
 Neutral line can be moved away from the node (“Offset”)
 Degrees of freedom may be released at the end of the
elements
 Assumes non-deforming cross section when deforming

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Typical Beam Models

Trusses

Frames

Stiffeners

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Examples of Beam Models

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Shell Elements

 2 - Dimensional Elements
 5 DOFS (No “drilling” DOF)
 Thickness constant or varying across element
 Triangle and Quadrilateral basis shape
 First and second order
 Neutral line can be moved away from the nodes (“Offset”)
 Assumes constant thickness when deforming

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Typical Shell Models

Thin shells, Thin plane or curved

thinwalled metal sheets
pressure vessels

Aircraft components

Automotive parts

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Examples of shell models

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Examples of shell models, 2
Courtesy of Adtranz

Courtesy of Adtranz Courtesy of Adtranz

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Solid Elements

 3 - Dimensional elements
 3 DOFS (no rotational DOFs)
 Tet and cube basic shapes
 First and second order

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Typical Solid Models

Thick walled
pressure vessels

Thick plates
and consoles

Cast iron parts and

fittings

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 Examples of Solid Models

Courtesy of Volvo Car

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Special Elements

Concentrated
Mass
Spring Damper Gap
(Point-Point-Contact)

Rigid / Interpolation

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Element Selection Guidelines

Choose the simplest element type

 if you can make a shell model - do it
 If you can make a beam model - do it

For structural analysis, don’t use first order tetra-elements.

(But they are ok for thermal analysis)

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 Example:
Deciding between 1D, 2D and 3D
element models

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The Model
 We have the following model:
It consist of rectangular beams that
are 100 mm wide and 200 mm high
with thickness 5 mm. The longest
beams are 2000 mm and the total width of the
model is 1000 mm. The centerline of the crossing
bars are located 550 mm from each end.
 The beams are welded together, but the weld fillets
are to be neglected due to their small size
 The structure carries a load of 2000 kg evenly
distributed over the two cross bars

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The problem

 We want to investigate the maximum overall

deflection and maximum stress
 As a guideline for meshing, we do not want
element aspect ratios greater than 5

Now lets do 1D, 2D and 3D calculations and see what

effort they take and what answers they yield!

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Beam Model

Element size 100 mm

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Shell Model

Element size 33 mm

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Solid Model

Element size 25 mm

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 Comparing the three analyses
1D 2D 3D
Number of nodes 60 9072 66015
Number of elements 60 3024 33003
DOF 336 44640 196317
Disk usage for solving 1 MB 195 MB 124 MB
Memory usage for solving 16 MB 21 MB 1530 MB

Modelling time 20 min 30 min 60 min

Solving time 2 sec 70 sec 2000 sec
Postprosessing time 15 min 2 min 1 min
Total time 35 min 33 min 94 min
Maximum deflection 0.0984 mm 0.143 mm 0.135 mm

The calculations were conducted using MSC.PATRAN V8.5, MSC.NASTRAN

V70.5. Hardware were HP Kayak 450 MHz, 256 MB RAM, MS/NT 4.0.

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 Comparing the three analysis
Beam Model
Minmal modelling effort, accurate calculation results
Does not calculate beam cross section deformation (which happens in this
case)
Postprocessing somewhat awkward and time consuming, could present errors

Plate Model
Higher modelling effort, good calculation results
Must have control of what is “top“ and “bottom“ of elements

Solid Model
Highest modelling effort, good calculation results
Does not give any significant additional results compared to plate model

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 Geometric Model

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Geometry

The geometry defining the model in question can be:

 Imported into the FE program

 Created using the FE program

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Geometry
 It is of greatest importance that small features not
important for the calculation of results the user is
looking for should be neglected

 A CAD MODEL is not the same as a CAE MODEL!!!

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Coordinate Systems
 Different systems available
 Default is the global Cartesian system

Z Z Z
q

z z r
r
x Y Y Y
X X q X F
y

Cartesian Cylindrical Spherical

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 Discretization of the geometric
model (Meshing)

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Element Type
Before meshing the user must chose between different
element types:
 Beam, Shell or Solid
 First or second order
 Triangle or quadrilateral basis shape

When this is done, meshing of the structure can begin

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Element Size
Before the mesh routine is activated, the user specifies
the element size. This can be done in a number of ways:

 Global element size

 Preferred number of elements along an edge
 Varying element length along an edge
 Allowed deviation from geometry

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Automatic meshing routines
Unmeshed… and meshed geometry

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Using meshing refinement

Examples of:
 Curvature based
mesh refinement
 Desired number
of elements along
edges - uniform
and varying

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 Generation of Volume Structures
from Meshed 2D-Geometry

Revolving shell mesh...

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 Generation of Volume Structures
from Meshed 2D-Geometry
Extruding shell mesh...

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Guidelines for Element Size
 In areas with high stress variations a finer mesh is
needed
 To represent a circle properly the maximum angle
between nodes should not be more than 15
degrees
 When doing dynamic analysis, generate enough
nodes to represent deformation results (5 nodes
per half period)

o
<15

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Conclusions for Element Size
There are two basic facts:
 A higher number of smaller elements gives a higher
accuracy (within reasonable numbers)
 A higher number elements needs more CPU time to
compute

Neither of the two can be compromised, certainly not the

answer - and projects tends to have deadlines also…
The user needs to be competent using all the meshing
capabilities of the FE program to get a mesh that is good
enough but not too good!

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Element quality
Each element has a predefined behaviour valid for
undistorted element shapes.

During meshing, elements are usually stretched or twisted

to some degree.

Is our assumption really valid ??

We must see to this ourselves, during each calculation!

Let´s take a look at a few examples...

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Element Distortion
Using too coarse a mesh will result in the mesher making
distorted elements in order to try to stay within parent
geometry

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Element Distortion

Transitioning from large to small elements usually leads to

distorted elements.
Examples below shows an ambiguous and an acceptable
transition.

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Types of Element Distortions


b d
b
a
Aspect Ratio Taper

a
h
 q

Skew and Internal Angles Warping

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Guidelines for Element Distortions

b longest edge

a
Aspect Ratio shortest
Avoid ratio of edge length > 5:1 height

60° Tet Collapse

Avoid ratio of longest edge to the shortest
height > 10
60° 60°
Otherwise the results may be very bad or
Skew and Internal Angles the solver will stop
Avoid deviations from the „ideal“ angle > 30°

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 Example:

Influence of Mesh on calculation

of results

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The Model
 Investigate the spring stiffness
of this spring

 Use several element sizes,

both first and second order

 Observe that when element

size increases, they become 2 mm
both distorted and do not follow
the geometry

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First order elements
3 mm 0.5 mm

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Second order elements
5 mm 0.75 mm

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Convergence Results
 We need many first
60 order elements to
50
converge in structural
Spring stiffness [N/mm]

analysis
40

1. Order
 Second order elements
30
2. Order
seem powerful
 First order elements
20

10
are also less capable
0 of following geometric
5 4,5 4 3,5 3 2,5 2 1,5 1 0,75 0,5

Element size [mm]

curves

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Conclusions
We have learnt that:
 The calculation of results is dependent on both shape
and number of elements in model
 Too coarse a mesh, too distorted a mesh, or even a
fine but distorted mesh - will yield wrong answer!

The user must, for each calculation, ensure:

 Adequate element shapes
 Adequate element numbers

There are no universal rules of thumb for the above,

it is based on user experience

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Defining Model Loads

Introduction to Finite Element Method

Definition of Loads
The loads are the reasons why we do calculations on
the models. We want to calculate the response on
the model due to the loads

The loads can be in terms of:

 Force
 Displacement
 Pressure
 Temperature
 Heat flux
 etc etc

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Definition of Loads
 Loads can be applied to points , surfaces or bodies
 They can be constant, or time dependent

F F
F

t t
t

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Defining Model Constraints

Introduction to Finite Element Method

Constraints
 By constraining our model we model the interface
of the model to the rest of the world
 Constraints can be given to both displacements
and rotations
 If the model is not constrained, it will yield
numerical problems (“singularities”) during solving,
as shown below

Unstable Stable

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Constraints

Fixed Connection

X
Transfers vertical and
No displacement horizontal forces and
or rotation possible moments

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Constraints

Pinned connection

X
Rotation possible,
no displacements
Horizontal and vertical
reaction forces,
no reaction moments

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Constraints

Sliding and pinned connection

X
Rotation and horizontal
displacement possible,
no vertical displacement Vertical reaction force,
no reaction moments or
horizontal forces

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Constraints, Example
Pinned constraints can be done in two ways:
A B
Inner edge given Rigid Elements
displacement R=0 made from inner
referenced to a edge to center
cylindrical point. This point
coordinate is given displacement
system in the Ux, Uy, Uz,
center Rx, Ry = 0

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Defining Materials

Introduction to Finite Element Method

Material Model Selection

 Isotropic
 Orthotropic (also "Composite"- plates/shells)
 Anisotropic
 Hyperelastic
 Manual data import
 User-modifiable material libraries

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Linear Material Assumptions
Conditions in the range of validity
 Theory of Elasticity of linear static calculations:
E (Hooke’s Law)
 Linear stress-strain-curve
 (Hooke’s Law) (Valid as long as the
F resulting stresses are below yield)

 Displacements are very small

u
compared to the size of the part or its
thickness

F=ku  The principal of superposition is valid !

x = E x
+ =

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Linear Material Properties
 Young‘s modulus, E

 Shear modulus, G E
G
2  (1  ν)
 Poisson ratio, 
 Relationship between axial and transverse
strain:
y
 =
x

P x P

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 Non-linear Materials
 K
Outside the range of validity of linear
static calculations:
 Nonlinear geometric effects (stability,
Eo
large displacements)
  Nonlinear material behaviour (elasticity
and/or plasticity)
Stress, 
Tension  Time- and temperature-dependent
Limit
material behaviour (creep)
YieldLlimit
 Contact with/without friction
 The principle of superposition is no
Linear longer valid !
Range / =E

+ 
Strain, 
0.2% Offset

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Defining Element Properties

Introduction to Finite Element Method

Properties

 In addition to the element shapes extra

information is needed in order to describe the
model completely.
 The extra information needed is dependent on
element type, but almost always material is an
example of a property that needs to be input
 The extra element information is input as element
properties

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Beam Element Properties

Beam elements needs to input:

 Material
 Cross sectional Area (A) - transfers axial forces
 Moments of Inertia (I) - transfers bending and shear
 Torsional Moment of Inertia (J) - transfers torsional
forces

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Shell Element Properties

Shell Element needs to input:

 Material
 Thickness

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Solid Element Properties

Solid elements needs to input:

 Material

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Conducting the analysis

Introduction to Finite Element Method

Checking the model

Before the analysis is run, the model should be

checked. A few items might be good to verify:

 Check for coincident nodes and/or elements

 Check the element quality
 Check the mass or volume of the model
 ???

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Types of Analysis
Linear Static Analysis

 Calculation of stresses
 Calculation of deformations

”Linear” means that the calculated results are linear

proportional to the applied loads.

”Static” means that the loading is not time dependent

or the time dependence is negligible.

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Types of Analysis
Normal Mode Analysis

 Calculation of the Eigenvalues

Eigenvalues are frequencies at which the structure would
start to oscillate if a periodic loading would be applied.
 Calculation of the Eigenmodes
Eigenmodes are the deformed shape of the structure at
a certain eigenfrequency.

Eigenfrequency analysis is used to determine the behavior of parts due

to dynamic loading.

If there is an eigenfrequency of the part close to the frequency

of the loading resonance effects may result and the loadings
may be substantially enlarged.

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 Types of Analysis
Stability and Buckling Analysis

 Calculation of Critical Stability and Buckling Loads

Load factor at which the structure fails by instability(buckling).
 Calculation of Stability and Buckling Shapes
Shape of the buckled structure at the point of critical loading.

In a linear static analysis it is assumed that the structure is

in stable equilibrium and will return to its original shape.

A structure will be unstable (buckling) if for a certain

load combination the deformation increases without
increasing the loading.

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Finding the answer..

 After the model is created in the preprocessor, the

problem is sent to the solver

 The solver calculates the answer to the problem, and this

can be viewed and interpreted in the postprocessor

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Postprocessing Calculation Results

Introduction to Finite Element Method

Postprocessing of Results

Postprocessing can be done as:

 Plot of Deformed Structure

 Contour Plots
 Animated Display of Deformations and Contours
 X-Y Plots
 Result Listings

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Results for Beam Elements
Beam elements has no geometrical extensions other than length
When postprocessing stresses the user must select at which point the stresses
shall be shown, such as top left, bottom right and so on.

zelem yelem

xelem

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Results for Shell Elements
When shell elements are used in plots, the results are
displayes for ”top”, ”bottom” or ”middle” of the elements.
Looking at the shells from the other side by rotating the
model will yield the same plot.
The user must selcet which position results shall be
presented at, and verify what is the element top by
checking the element normal vector.
Shown are the stresses in the Y-direction. They should be
tensile on the positive z-side and compressive on the
negative z-side of the model.

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Results for Solid Elements

Solid elements require no special postprocessing attention from the user.

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Different presentations of same calculation
1. 2. 1. Continuous spectrum
2. Discrete spectrum
3. Element fill
4. Real results

3. 4.

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Checking the answer

 Check the stress gradient. If high stress gradients

are present, it might be wise to refine the mesh
locally and re-run the analysis

 A re-run analysis with a finer mesh that yields the

same answer is indicative of a converged answer

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Special Modelling Techniques

Introduction to Finite Element Method

Special Modeling Techniques
Symmetry

 Cases for which the geometry and the

constraints of a structure are identical with
respect to one or more axes or planes
 Symmetry constraints are a function of the
orientation of the coordinate axis
 Use of Symmetry may be restricted for some
types of analysis. (Normally not applied for
stability or dynamic analysis)

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Exploiting half symmetry

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Exploiting Axis-symmetry
This CAD model… could have this CAE model!

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 Guidelines for deciding the
analysis model

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Analysis models

 Analysis assumptions should be based on

knowledge and experience

 Always verify the plausibility of the results before

you make design decisions depending on them

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 Definition of the Problem

 What is the most efficient analysis method

to get the desired results?

2-D simulation 3-D simulation and modeling

- Plane Stress - Simulation with elastic beams
- Plane Strain - Use of symmetry
- Axis-symmetric - Plate or solid models

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 How to get a better
understanding of the model
 Try small realistic examples where analytical solutions
exist to test the behaviour of unknown element types and
unknown solution types.
 Divide the complete structure into substructures to better
understand the behavior of the model.
 Apply load combinations separately to understand their
individual influence and combine them again later for
sensitivity studies
 Vary the constraints/boundary conditions and do
separate analyses when the situation is not well
understood and unclear.

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Model Verification
 Simple test calculations done by hand for comparison

 Pre-estimate the behaviour of the part and try to interpret

possible deviations from the expected results

 Always use your engineering common sense !

(Are the orders of magnitude of the results correct? Does
the deformation look plausible?, etc.)

 Compare with prototypes

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 Example:
Choosing calculation model

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How to decide the analysis model
This is the
new
International
Space Station,
modeled in
the CAD
system
Unigraphics

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Beam Model
Example of possible Beam Model:

Analysis of Solar
Array Truss
Structure

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Shell Model
Example of Shell model:
Analysis of crew
compartment
module

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Solid Model
Example of Solid model:
Analysis of
lifting lug

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