Communication Networks

Some Terminologies
 Some Terminologies
• services between adjacent layers in the OSI
architecture are expressed in terms of,
– Primitives and
– Parameters.

• Primitive: A primitive specifies the function to be

performed.
• Parameter: parameters are used to pass data and
control information.
 Types of Primitives
• Four types of primitives are used in standards
to define the interaction between adjacent
layers in the architecture.

• Request
• Indication
• Response
• Confirm
 Types of Primitives
• Request- A primitive issued by a service user to
invoke some service and to pass the parameters
needed to specify fully the requested service.

• Indication A primitive issued by a service

provider either to
– indicate that a procedure has been invoked by the
peer service user on the connection and to provide
the associated parameters, or
– notify the service user of a provider-initiated action
 Types of Primitives
• Response A primitive issued by a service user
to acknowledge or complete some procedure
previously invoked by an indication to that
user.

• Confirm A primitive issued by a service

provider to acknowledge or complete some
procedure previously invoked by a request by
the service user.
 Time Sequence Diagram of Primitives
• The primitives are time ordered as per the following
diagram,
• Confirmed Service:
 Time Sequence Diagram of Primitives
• The primitives are time ordered as per the following
diagram,
• Unconfirmed Service:
Data transfer Steps from Entity to peer
• The source (N) entity invokes its (N – 1) entity with a
request primitive. Associated with the primitive are
the parameters needed, such as the data to be
transmitted and the destination address.

• The source (N – 1) entity prepares an (N – 1) PDU to

be sent to its peer (N – 1) entity.

• The destination (N– 1) entity delivers the data to the

appropriate destination (N) entity via an indication
primitive, which includes the data and source
address as parameters.
Data transfer Steps from Entity to peer
• If an acknowledgment is called for, the destination
(N) entity issues a response primitive to its (N – 1)
entity.

• The (N – 1) entity conveys the acknowledgment in an

(N – 1) PDU.

• The acknowledgment is delivered to the (N) entity as

a confirm primitive.
 Network Topologies
• Star topology
• Bus Topology
• Ring Topology
• Mesh Topology
 Network topologies
• Star topology

• Each device is connected to a central device which is

a switch/hub.

• Switch is commonly used because it is an intelligent

device as compare to hub. Also switch is a
configurable device. Through switch we can manage
whole network.

• Star topology is also called hub and spoke topology

 Network topologies
• Star topology

• The PCs are connected to the central device through

a cable normally UTP but we may use fiber optic etc.

• This is the topology which is used nowadays.

 Network topologies
• Bus Topology

• Co-axial cable is used to connect the devices. The

data rate of this cable is 10Mbps.

• There is a single point of failure means if any one

cable is broken then whole network would be
down.

• It transmits the electrical signal from one end of a

cable to the other end of a cable

• This topology obsolete in early 90s.

 Network topologies

• Ring Topology

• This topology is used by IBM machines to

communicate between them.

• Each device is connected directly to other

so that the signal is repeated in one
direction, creating ring or loop.

• There is a network interface card used

called token ring NIC.
 Network topologies

• Ring Topology

• An empty token is passed from one PC to

another in clockwise direction. if any PC
wants to send the data, it will grab the
data, inject the data and then forward the
token.

• The cable used for communication is

called Shielded twisted pair (STP).
 Network topologies

• Ring Topology

Disadvantages:
• This topology is very slow.
• There is a single point of failure.
• There is no centralized management.
 Network topologies

• Full Mesh topology

• It means that all the respective nodes in the
network have a direct connection.
• It is more reliable due to having more paths.
• Database server needs more reliability,
therefore it is recommended for it.

Disadvantages:
• It is very complex to make mesh topology and
also cost is very high.
 Network topologies

• Partial Mesh topology

• In this topology some of the nodes in the
network have a direct connection but others
do not.
• It is very close to mesh topology.