PROTECTIVE RELAYS

Introduction
• Protection and control plays a major role in
power system

• Protection – whole protection of power

system

• Protective equipment acts only after the

occurrence of fault
2
 Components in power system
• Generators
• Transformers
• Transmission lines
• Distribution lines

3
 NEED FOR POWER SYSTEM
PROTECTION
• Components designed for normal operation
– Abnormality to be isolated
– Isolation of faulty section
– Relays and Switch gear.
• Why do we need protection?
– Electrical apparatus operates at various voltage levels
may be enclosed or placed in open.
- Under abnormal operating conditions protection is
necessary for safety of electrical equipments.
– Safety of human personnel.

4
 Effects of faults in power system
• Loss of synchronism of individual or group of
generators
• Risk of damage to affected plant
• Risk of damage to healthy plant
• May cause fire in system

• Loss of production and interruption of vital

process in an industrial plant
5
 Abnormalities in power system
• Short circuit in a transmission system or
distribution system
• Over voltage due to switching and lightning
• Over speeding of motors and generators
• Loss of excitation of machines
• Over heating of the stator and rotor of machines
• Insulation breakdown in windings
• Low oil level in transformers and C .Bs

6
 Electrical quantities changing during
fault
• Voltage
• Current
• Frequency
• Phase angle

7
 System and substation layout
• Radial feeder
• Parallel feeder
• Ring system
• Combination of above three

8
Radial feeders

9
Parallel feeder

10
Ring mains distribution system

11
Inter connected system

12
 Nature and causes of faults
• Insulation failure
– Over votages
– Ice, salt or cement coating on surface of
conductor-causes flash over
• Conducting path failure
– Birds touching line
– Trees falling
– Vehicles collides

13
 Types of fault
• Symmetrical
– 3 phase fault, all 3 phases touching ground
– 3 phases touching together
• Unsymmetrical
– L-G fault
– 2L-G fault
– L-L fault
– Open circuited phases
– Winding faults
• Simultaneous fault
– Two or more faults occurring together

14
 Effect of faults
• Cause damage to equipment or any other
element of the system
• Arcs causes fire hazards
• Reduction of supply voltage , resulting loss of
production
• Loss of system stability, shut down of plant
• Loss of revenue

15
 Fault statistics
• Over head line-50%
• U G- 9%
• Transformers-10%
• Generators-7%
• Switch gear-12%
• CTs ,Pts Relays ,control equipments—12%

16
 Frequency of occurrence of fault
• Line to ground-85%
• Line to Line—8%
• Double line to ground__5%
• Three phase –2%

17
 Protection zones
• Power system consist of types of equipments
• Protective schemes depends on type and
nature of equipment to be protected.

• Overlapping of zones is allowed to avoid

unprotected areas.
• Overlapping will trip all the C.Bs in both the
zones even though a fault may occurred on
one side
18
Developments in relay technology

• Electromagnetic relays replaced fuses in

1902,based on overcurrent principle
• In 1909-more selectivity type induction disc
type inverse time current relays.
• Later directional relays,pilotwire for
communication were introduced.
• 1932 ,distance relays based on impedance was
introduced.

19
 Relay developments(contd..)
• 1939,induction type mho relays,with better
accuracy and sensitivity
• 1940s ,static relays to reduce burden of CTs and
PTs
• Digital protection scheme introduced in 1960s
• Numerical impedance calculation for
transmission line protection introduced in 1980s
and microprocessor based relays introduced.
• Schemes based on artificial intelligence wavelets
and DSP systems are introduced.

20
Developments of protection and relays

21
 What is relay?
• An electrical device connected between the
main circuit and the circuit breaker that
detects the fault and initiate the operation of
the circuit breaker to isolate the defective
section from the rest of the system

22
 Function of relay
• To operate only when a fault occurs under
abnormal condition.
• Relay senses the fault
• Identifies the location of the fault
• Sends command signals to appropriate C. B
which disconnects faulty section

23
 Fundamental elements of relay
• Sensing element
– Responds to the change in the actuating
quantity,ie,current in over current relay
• Comparing element
– Compares the action of the actuating quantity on
the relay with a pre designed relay setting
• Control element
– Accomplishes a sudden change in control
quantity

24
Relay circuit in transmission line

25
 Main circuits in relay

• Primary winding of C.T-

connected in series with
line
• Secondary coil of C T and
relay operating coil
• Tripping circuit is either a.c
or d.c ,consists of source of
supply, the trip coil of the
C.B and the relay stationary
contacts.

26
 Working of relay
• When S.C. occurs at F due to heavy current
through C. T & through relay coil, causing relay
to operate by closing contacts.
• This closes trip coil of C.B making it to open
and isolating the faulty section from live part,
thus protecting the equipment.

27
 Basic requirements of protection
• Selectivity or discrimination
– Enable to discriminate condition for which prompt
operation is required or not. Eg.operation under fault
and overload
• Reliability
– Probability of failure
• Sensitivity
– A good relay should be sensitive to operate when
current just exceeds its pick- up value. Relay should
not operate if the fault current is below pick-up value

28
 Basic requirements of
protection(Contd..)
• Stability
– Quality of protective system to remain stable even
if a large current flows in its protective zone due
fault in external zone.
• Speed
– Relay should operate in least possible time. Faster
the operating time lesser the damage to
equipments.

29
 Terms connected with relays
• Operating force or torque-which tends to
close the contacts of the relay
• Restraining force or torque:-which opposes
the operating torque and tends to prevent the
closure of the relay contacts
• Operating or pick up value:-threshold value of
current, voltage etc above which the relay will
close its contacts

30
 Terms connected with relays
• Drop out or reset value– value of voltage or current
below which the relay contacts open and return to
normal position
• Flag or target- device indicates the operation of the
relay
• Power consumption (burden)- power absorbed by
circuits of the relay expressed in VA in a.c and in W in
d.c circuits
• Operating time- time which elapses from the moment
when the actuating quantity attains a value equal to
the pick up value until the relay operates its contacts

31
 Terms connected with relays
• Reset time- time which elapses between the
moment when the actuating quantity
becomes less than reset value until the relay
contacts return to its normal position.
• Pick –up current –minimum current in relay
coil at which the relay starts to operate.
• Over reach – it operates at a current which is
lower than its setting.

32
 Terms connected with relays
• Current setting- Pick up current is adjusted to
any required value , achieved by the use of
tapping on the relay operating coil.
Expressed in percentage full load rating of C.T
associated with relay and represents the value
above which the disc commences to rotate
and finally closes the trip circuit.
• Pick up current= rated secondary current of
C.T * current setting.

33
A typical Induction Type Relay

34
 Terms connected with relays
• Plug setting multiplier
(P.S.M) = fault current in relay coil
pick up current
- fault current in relay coil
Rated secondary current of C.T x current setting
Time setting multiplier (TMS)– Control the
adjustment of time of operation. Calibrated
from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05 sec
35
 Numerical Example
• Determine the time of operation of a relay of
rating 5 amps, 2.2 sec IDMT and having a relay
setting of 125% TMS = 0.6. It is connected to a
supply circuit through a C.T. 400/5 ratio. The
fault current is 4000 amps.

36
 Numerical Example
• Determine the time of operation of a relay of
rating 5 amps, 2.2 sec IDMT and having a relay
setting of 125% TMS = 0.6. It is connected to a
supply circuit through a C.T. 400/5 ratio. The
fault current is 4000 amps.
• The pick up value of the relay is 5 amps but
since the relay setting is 125%, therefore, the
operating current of the relay is 5 × 1.25 =
6.25 amps

37
Numerical Example

38
 Numerical Example
• Determine the time of operation of a relay of rating 5 amps,
2.2 sec IDMT and having a relay setting of 125% TMS = 0.6. It
is connected to a supply circuit through a C.T. 400/5 ratio. The
fault current is 4000 amps.
• From the standard 2.2 sec curve the operating
time for PSM = 8 is 3.2 sec.
• Since the TMS is 0.6, the actual operating time
of the relay is 1.92 secs

39
Calculation of relay operating time
• Parameters required
1.Time/P.S.M.curve
2.Current setting
3.Time setting
4.Fault current
5.Current transformer ratio

40
 Steps to calculate actual relay
operating time
• Using C.T ratio, convert fault current to relay
coil current
• Express relay current as a multiplier of current
setting ie, calculate P.S.M
• Using Time /P.S.M curve of relay ,read time of
operation for the calculated P.S.M
• Determine the actual time of operation by
multiplying the above time of the relay by
time setting multiplier in use.
41
Characteristics of over current relay

42
 Types of relays
• Primary relays
– Connected directly in the
circuit to be protected.
• Secondary relays
– Connected in the circuit to
be protected through C.Ts
and P.Ts – operates is
primary protection fails
• Auxiliary relays
– Operate in response to the
opening and closing of its
operating circuit to assist
another relay in the
performance of its function

43
 Types of relays based on speed of
operation
• Instantaneous relay
– Relay in which no intentional time
delay is provided.
– This relay is effective only where
the impedance between the relay
and source is small compared to
the protected section impedance
– Operating time expressed in cycles
based on power system frequency.

44
 Types of relays based on speed of
operation

• Inverse time relay

– Operating time is inversely proportional to the
magnitude of actuating quantity.
– At values of current less than pick-up value the
relay never operates.
– At higher values ,the time of operation of relay
decreases with increase of time.

45
 Types of relays based on speed of
operation

• Definite time lag relay

– There is a definite time elapse between the
instant of pick up and the closing of relay contact.
– These relays are provided with definite minimum
time feature that the relay may never become
instantaneous in its action for very long overloads

46
 Classification based on construction
• Electromechanical relay
• Thermal relay
• Transductor relay
• Rectifier bridge relays
• Electronic relays
• Static relays
• Digital relays
• Microprocessor based relays
• Network relays

47
 Classification of relays based on their
function
• Over current relays • Pilot relays
• Under voltage relays • Adaptive relays
• Under frequency relays • Neural network based
• Directional relays relays
• Thermal relays • Wavelet based relays
• Phase sequence relays • Wide area based relays
• Differential relays • Hybrid based relays
• Distance relays

48
 Types of electromagnet relays as per
construction
• Attracted armature type
• Induction disc type
• Induction cup type
• Printed disc type
• Moving coil type
• Polarized moving iron type

49
 Attracted armature type relays
• An armature is attracted to the poles of an
electromagnet through a plunger which is
drawn in to a solenoid
• Either a.c or d.c current
• D.C develops a constant torque
• A.c symbolizes the actuating quantity

50
Solenoid type relay

51
Attracted armature type relay

52
 Working of relay
• Consists of a laminated electromagnet and a pivoted
laminated armature.
• Armature balanced by a counter weight and carries a
pair of spring contact fingers at its free end.
• Under normal condition the current through relay coil
is such that the counterweight holds the armature in
the balanced position
• When fault occurs the current through the relay coil
increases and the relay armature is attracted upwards
• Then the stationary contacts attached to the relay
frame are bridged and trip circuit is complete.
53
 Operating principle
• Electromagnetic force exerted on the moving element
is proportional to the square of the flux in the air gap
• Actuating force expressed as F=K1I2-K2
• F= net force
• K1 =a force conversion constant
• I = rms value of the actuating coil current
• K2 =restraining force including friction
• At the verge of picking up net force equal to zero.
• K1I2= K2
• I=(K2/K1) (½)
54
 Contd…..
• When I increases the predetermined setting,
the net force causes the relay to operate by
moving the moving element of the relay.
• After pick up the air gap is shorted and the
value of current required is lesser .
• Reset value of current is 90-95% for a.c and
60-90% for d.c
• These relays not used for directional control.

55
Different types of attracted armature
type relay

56
 Principle
• Coil energized by operating quantity
proportional to current or voltage
• Electromagnetic force produced proportional
to square of flux or current
• Used for protection of small machine
• Actuating quantity either ac or dc

57
Plunger type relay

58
Balanced beam type relay

59
Moving coil relay

60
61
Polarised moving iron relay

62
 Advantages
• Operating time is less than 5msec
• Compact
• Robust and reliable

63
 Induction Disc Relay
• Based on electromagnetic induction principle

• Work only on a.c quantities

• Shaded pole structure

• Wattmeter structure

64
 Shaded pole Structure
• Moving element is disc ,placed between
shaded and unshaded pole and mounted on
shaft,made of aluminium
• Relay consist of a magnetic core carrying
operating /exciting coil
• Current proportional to system current is
flowing through operating coil.
• Copper shading rings

65
 Electromagnet induction type relays
• Used for a.c quantities
• Principle –split phase induction motor
• Actuating force developed on a movable
element
• Disc or rotor of non magnetic current
conducting material-(aluminium disc) by the
interaction of electromagnetic fluxes with
eddy currents that are induced in the rotor by
these fluxes
66
Torque produced on a induction relay

67
 Working (contd..)
• ɸ1 and ɸ2 fluxes producing currents i1 and i2
• I1 reacts with flux ɸ 2 develops force F2
• i2 reacts with develops force F1
• ɸ1 = ɸ1max sinω t
• ɸ2 = ɸ2max sin (ωt+α)
• i1 α (dɸ1/dt) = ɸ1max cosω t
• i2 α (dɸ2/dt) = ɸ2max cos(ω t+ α)

68
 Working (contd….)
• F1 α ɸ1 i2 and F2 α ɸ2 i1
• Two forces F1 and F2 are in opposition net
force is given by
F= F2 - F1 α ɸ2 i1 -ɸ1 i2
α ɸ2max sin (ωt+α) ɸ1max cosω t- ɸ1max sinω t
ɸ2max cos (ωt+α)
α ɸ2max ɸ1max [sin (ωt+α) cosω t- sinω t cos
(ωt+α)]
69
 Working (contd…)
• Fα ɸ2max ɸ1max [sin (ωt+α-ω t)]
α ɸ2max ɸ1max (sin α)
F α ɸ1 ɸ2sin α
ɸ1 and ɸ2 are the r.m.s values of the fluxes
.
F= K I2 sin α
F=KMN sin α
Where M and N produce ɸ1 & ɸ2
70
 Different structures used
• Shaded pole structure
• Watthour meter or double winding type
• Induction cup structure

71
Induction type over-current relay

72
Shaded pole induction relay
• Rotating disc -
Aluminium
• Shading ring- copper
• Two fluxes displaced in
space and time
• Cutting aluminum disc
-Eddy currents
Torque – by fluxes and
eddy current

73
Watthour metric double winding
structure

74
 Working
• To get phase displacement- coils on both
magnets energized by different sources
• Same source- R and L values of coils different
• Robust and reliable
• Used for over current protections, slow speed
relays
• Inverse time characteristics
• VA burden 2.5VA
75
 Current setting and time setting
• Current setting
– Tapings provided on coil to select desired pick up
value of current
• Time setting
– The distance which the disc travels before it
closes the relay contact can be adjusted by
adjusting the position of the backstop

76
Printed disc relay

77
 Operating principle
• Dynamometer type instrument
• Current from CT fed to printed disc through
rectifier
• When this current carrying conductor placed
on magnetic field, a force developed and thus
torque exerted on it

78
Printed disc extremely inverse relay

79
 Working

• Extremely inverse characteristic is obtained by

including a network in between the printed
circuit of the disc and rectified current input

80
Induction cup relay

81
 Induction cup relay
• Stationary iron core inside rotating cup to
decreases air gap without increasing inertia
• Spindle of cup carries an arm which closes
contacts
• Resetting torque produced by spring
• Rotor hollow cylinder
• Torque produced by the interaction of rotating
flux and induced current
82
 Induction cup relay -advantages
• Torque per VA 3 times that of induction disc
relay
• VA burden reduced
• High sensitivity, high speed
• Producing steady non vibrating torque

83
 THERMAL RELAYS
• Used for protection of apparatus
• Works on the principle of indirect
temperature measurement
• Main element --bimetallic strip

84
Thermal relays

85
 Working
• Bimetallic strip –two metal strips of different
coefficient of thermal expansion joined
together
• Heated by passing actuating quantity through
it- heater coil used
• Bimetallic strip bends and deflects, closing
relay contact
• 3 strips used for 3 phase motors

86
 Auxiliary relay
• Repeats the duties of protective relay and
control switch
• Used for performing the following functions
– Tripping
– Time lag
– Breaking of trip circuit current
– Giving alarm
– Showing flag

87
 Why auxiliary relays used?

• Protective relay contacts not able to carry

high currents for long time

• Do not have enough contacts to perform all

duties of protective scheme

88
 Types of auxiliary relays
• Seal in relay-to protect contacts of protective
relay. When relay closes contacts this relay
bypasses the contacts
• Time lag relay –used for time discrimination
• Alarm relay – give auditable and visual indication
• Repeat contactors
• Flag or target – shows the operation of relay
• Auxiliary switch—connected with trip coil circuit

89
Connections for other relays

90
Techniques to produce Time delays
• Relay should operate after a predefined time
delay
• Separate circuit used
• Time lag relay gives required time delay

91
Techniques to produce Time delays
• Mechanical time delay
• Thermal time delay
• Electrical time delay
• Short circuiting ring
• Capacitance
• Resonant circuit
• Ballistic resistance
• Synchronous motor
• Electronic time delay

92
Time delay circuits in relays

93
Static time delay circuit

• Longer time delay

• Time delay depends on
values of C and charging
current

94
 Bearings of relay
• Pivot and jewel bearings used
• Spring mounted bearings in modern relay
• Shocks taken on shoulder ,not on jewels
• Sapphire jewels for high sensitivity
• Multi-ball bearings for greater resistance to
shock

95
 Back stop
• Relay moving parts when stationary rests on
backstop
• Material should not be sticky
• Non- metallic

96
 Contacts of relay
• Reliability depends on • Requirements of good
contact performance contacts
• Material used -- Silver, – Low contact resistance
silver cadmium oxide, – High contact pressure
alloy of silver ,gold and – Freedom from corrosion
platinum – Bounce free
– Self clearing action
– Freedom from sparking
– Dust proof

97
Classification of protective
schemes
 Function of protective scheme

• Protect an equipment or a section of the line

• Includes one or more relays of the same or

different types

99
 Classification
• Over current protection
• Distance protection
• Carrier current protection
• Differential protection

100
 Classification
• Over current protection
– Protection of distribution lines, large motors,
equipments
• Distance protection
– Protection of transmission or subtransmission
lines,33kV,66kV,132kV
– Types of relays-- impedance, reactance and mho
relays
• Carrier current protection
• Differential protection
101
 Classification

• Carrier current protection

– Used for protection of EHV and UHV lines, 132kV and
above
– Carrier signal used in the range of 5—500kc/s
– Transmitter and receiver are used
– Fault current direction information transmitted from
one end to other
– Relays are distance type
– Tripping controlled by carrier current

102
 Classification
• Differential protections
– Used for protection of generators, transformers,
motors of very large size, bus zone etc
– CTs used on both sides of winding of machine
– Relay compares the current entering and leaving
the winding
– If difference occurs relay operates

103
Current and Voltage
Transformers

104
 Introduction
• CTs and PTs collectively known as transducers or
instrument transformers
• Measuring instruments
• Ratings standardized
• CT 5A or 1A secondary
• PT 110V line to line –secondary
• Relay ratings same as secondary rating of CT or
PT
• An error introduced in measurements

105
Current Transformers

106
 Functions of CTs

• Step down heavy current values to lower

values
• Isolate relay and meters from the high
voltages of power system

107
 Comparison with power transformer

Power transformer Current transformer

• Shunt operated • Similar construction to some
• VA rating high extent
• Difference in design and
operation
• Series operated (connected in
series with power system)
• VA rating low
• Under fault, secondaries can
tolerate high currents for for
short time

108
 Comparison between measuring and
protective CTs
Measuring CT
• Step down primary current
to lower values
• Secondary connected to
current coil of A/M or W/M
• Operating under normal
operating condition
• High accuracy upto 125%
rated current
• Get saturated at about 1.25
times full load currents
Protective CT
• Used with relays, trip coils,
pilot wires etc
• Designed to have small errors
during fault
• Not accurate during normal
operation
• Secondary should have short
time ratings , 100 to 250 A for
5A CT
• DC off set should also be
considered during fault
• Do not Saturate upto 20 to 50
times
109
Magnetization characteristics

110
 Materials used for core of CT
• Cold rolled grain oriented silicon steel(3%)
– High permeability, high saturation level, small
exciting current, low errors
– Used for protective relays
• Nickel iron (77% nickel,14% Fe)
–give good accuracy , used for meters and
instruments
– High permeability, low exciting current, low errors
and saturation at relatively low flux density
111
 Burden on CT
• Load connected on secondary, expressed in VA
Or impedance at the rated secondary current at
a given power factor, 0.7 lagging
• Let burden be 0.5Ω at 5Asecondary current
• VA=I2 R =5x5x0.5 =1.25VA
• CT burden is power required to operate relay
• Total burden is that of relay, meters ,connecting
leads and burden due to resistance of secondary
of CT

112
 Burden on CT
• P VA- rated burden
• Is – rated secondary current
• Ohmic impedance of burden Zb = P/Is2
• If power factor be cosΦ
• R b= Zb cosΦ

X b  Z  Rb
2 2
b

113
 Burden for different current settings

• When relay is set to operate at current different from

rated secondary current of CT, effective burden is
2
 Is 
Pe  Pr 
I  
 r 
• Where
– P e= effective VA burden of the relay on CT
– P r =VA burden of relay at given current setting I r
– I s = rated secondary current of CT
– I r = current setting of the relay

114
 Technical terms of CTs
• Rated primary current:
– marked on the rating plate of transformer and on
which the performance of CT specified by
manufacturer
• Rated secondary current
– Marked on rating plate and on which the
performance of CT specified by manufacturer
• Rated transformation ratio
– Rated primary to secondary current

115
 Technical terms of CTs
• Actual transformation ratio
– Ratio of actual primary current to the actual secondary
current
• Burden
– Load current connected across the secondary of CT
expressed in VA or ohms at rated secondary current
• Rated burden
– Burden including connecting lead impedance
• Rated short time current
– R.m.s value of a.c component of the current which the CT
is capable of carrying for the rated time without being
damaged by the thermal or dynamic effects

116
 Technical terms of CTs
• Rated short time factor
– Ratio of short time rated current to the rated
current
• Rated accuracy limit primary current
– Highest value of primary current assigned by the
CT manufacturer, upto which the limits of
composite errors are complied with.

117
 Composite error
T
• Composite error  100 1 ( Ni  i )
Ip T 0 s p

• Where
• N =rated transformation ratio
• Ip =r.m .s value of primary current
i p=instantaneous value of the primary current
is=instantaneous value of the secondary
current
T= time period of one cycle in seconds
118
 Knee –point voltage

Vk  KI ( RCT  Z s )

• Where
K= a parameter to be specified by the purchaser
depending on the system fault level and the characteristic
of the relay intended to be used
I= rated relay current(1A or 5A)
RCT =resistance of CT secondary winding corrected to 75oC
Zs = impedance of the secondary circuit

119
Equivalent circuit of CT viewed from
secondary side

120
Phasor diagram of a current
transformer

121
 Theory of CT
• All quantities referred on secondary side
• Ideal CT, primary ampere turns equal to
secondary ampere turns
• Phase opposition
• CT errors introduced in magnitude and phase
angle in practical case
• Errors –ratio error, phase angle error
• Source of error Io –exciting current
122
123
124
I  ( I c  NI s cos  )  ( I m  NI s sin  s )
2
p
2 2
s
2

 ( I o sin   NI s cos  s ) 2  ( I o cos   NI s sin  s ) 2


Hence, Ip  ( I o sin   NI s cos  s )  ( I o cos   NI s sin  s )
2

2 1/

 I o sin 2   2 I o sin N * NI s cos  s  N 2 I s cos 2  s  I o cos 2 

2 2

 2 I o cos  .NI s sin  s  N I s sin  s )

2 2 2 1/ 2

125
• Neglecting terms ,containing Io2

Ip  N I s (cos  s  sin  s )  2 NI s I o (sin  cos  s  cos  sin  s )
2 2 2 2

1/ 2


 N I s  2 NI s sin(    s )
2 2
1/ 2

• On approximation
 NI s  I o sin(    s )

• Hence I p  NI s  I o sin(    s )

126
 Actual transformation ratio
• Na is given by,
Ip NI s  I o sin(    s )
Na  
Is Is
Io
Na  N  sin(    s )
Is
• Further expansion gives
Io
Na  N  (sin  cos  s  cos  sin  s )
Is
( I o sin  cos  s  I o cos  sin  s )
Na  N 
Is
( I c cos  s  I m sin  s )
Na  N 
Is
I c  I o sin 
andI m  I o cos 
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 Actual transformation ratio
• If ϴs is small and assumed zero
• Actual ratio is
Ic
Na  N 
Is

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