CSAE 42

Artificial Intelligence

July-Dec 2018
Text Book: AI by Russel and Norvig
3rd Edition
 Texbook
• S. Russell and P. Norvig, Artificial Intelligence: A
Modern Approach, 3rd Eition, Prentice Hall, (third
edition) 2010.

• Papers: Selected, topic based papers from the

– Journals: Artificial Intelligence, Artificial Intelligence
Programming, Machine Learning, IEEE Expert, Data
and Knowledge Engineering, Pattern Recognition etc.
 Other AI texts
Title Authors Publisher Year Edition
AI: Structures and George F. Pearson Ed. 2004 4th
Strategies or complex Luger
problem solving
Artificial Intelligence Rich, Knight McGraw-Hill 1991 2nd
Artificial Intelligence Pattrick Henry Pearson Ed 1992 3rd
Winston
Artificial Intelligence and N. P. Padhy Oxford 2005 1st
Intelligent Systems University Edition
Press
Logical Foundations of AI Genesereth, Morgan 1987 2nd
Nilsson Kaufmann
Prolog Programming for Ivan Bratko Pearson Ed. 2001 3rd
Artificial Intelligence edition
Artificial Intelligence: A Michael Pearson Ed. 2011 2nd
guide to Intelligent Negnevitsky edition
Systems
 Course Overview
Topic Chapters

• Intelligent Agents 1, 2
• Search techniques 3, 4
• Knowledge Representation and Reasoning 7, 8
• Logical Inference 9, 10
• PROLOG
• Learning and Neural Networks 18, 19, 20
• Genetic Algorithm
• Fuzzy Systems
 Topics in AI course
• Search
– General Graph Search, A*, Admissibility, Monotonicity
– Iterative Deepening, α-β pruning, Application in game playing
• Logic
– Formal System, axioms, inference rules, completeness,
soundness and consistency
– Propositional Calculus, Predicate Calculus, Fuzzy Logic,
Description Logic
• Knowledge Representation
– Semantic Net, Frame, Script, Conceptual Dependency,
Semantic Web
• Uncertain knowledge and Reasoning
– Bayes’ Rule, Probabilistic Reasoning
 Other Topics
• Machine Learning
– Supervised Learning, Neural Networks, Support Vector
Machines, Self Organization or Unsupervised Learning
• Evolutionary Computation
– Genetic Algorithm and its Applications
• Man and Machine
– Natural Language Processing, Computer Vision, Expert
Systems, Robot Architectures
 AI Course Syllabus
• AI history and applications: Introduction to Artificial Intelligence, Foundations and History of Artificial
Intelligence, Defining AI: Acting Humanly (Turing Test Approach), Thinking Humanly (Cognitive Modeling
Approach), Thinking Rationally (laws of thought approach), Acting Rationally (Rational Agent Approach);
Foundations of Artificial Intelligence; AI techniques, Expert Systems, Applications of Artificial Intelligence,
Intelligent Agents, Structure of Intelligent Agents. Introduction to Computer vision, Natural Language
Possessing, Machine learning, Soft Computing etc.
• Problem solving using Search : Searching for solutions, Uninformed Search Strategies: Breadth-first
Search, Depth-first Search, Depth-limited Search, Iterative Deepening depth-first search, Comparing
uninformed search strategies; constraint satisfaction problems, Heuristic Search Techniques: Hill Climbing,
Simulated Annealing, Best First Search: OR Graphs, Heuristic Functions, A* Algorithm, AND-OR Graphs,
AO* Algorithm, Adversarial Search: Zero-sum perfect information Games, Optimal Decisions and Strategies
in Games, Mini-max Algorithm, Alpha-beta Pruning, Imperfect Real-time decisions, Games that include
chance, State of the art game programs.
• Knowledge Representation & Reasoning: Propositional logic, Theory of first order logic, Inference in First
order logic, Forward & Backward chaining, Resolution, Representations and mappings, Approaches to
Knowledge Representation, Procedural versus Declarative Knowledge; Predicate Logic: Representing Simple
facts, Instance and is-a relationships in Logic, Proposition versus Predicate Logic, Computable Functions and
Predicates, Rules of Inferences and Resolution-refutation, Logic Programming and Horn Clauses; Weak Slot-
and-Filler Structures: Semantic Nets, Frames; Introduction to Semantic Web and ontologies, Strong Slot-
and-Filler Structures: Conceptual Dependency, Scripts
• AI Programming Language (PROLOG): Introduction, How Prolog Works, Backtracking, CUT and FAIL
operators, Built-in Goals, Negation, Lists, Syntax and built-in Functions, Basic list manipulation functions in
PROLOG, Predicates and Conditionals, Input, Output and Local Variables, Iteration and Recursion, recursive
Lists processing, Search in Prolog: Breadth-first, depth-first, Best-first search for AI problem solving
• Probabilistic/Statistical Reasoning: Probability and Bayes’ Theorem, Certainty Factors and Rule-Based
Systems, Bayesian Networks, Exact and approximate inference in Bayesian networks, Markov chains,
Quantifying uncertainty, Intro to Fuzzy Logic; Non-monotonic Reasoning, Truth Maintenance Systems,
probabilistic reasoning over time.
 Goal of This Course
• Introduce you to the kinds of problems studied in AI

• Introduce you to a set of key methods for problem

solving

– knowledge representation, reasoning, learning,

Artificial Neural Network, and Genetic Algorithm,
PROLOG and MATLAB

• Teach you about the applicability and limitations of these

methods

Reading: Chapter 1, Russell & Norvig

 How AI started?
• Computers appeared in the 1940s, though initially it was
used for numerical calculation, soon people realized that
it can carry out many other intellectual activities by
manipulating various types of symbols.

• Naturally people began to wonder – “whether all mental

activities can be carried out by computer, and if not,
where is the boundary”.
 What is Artificial Intelligence?
• The phrase AI was coined by John McCarthy during 1956.
• The automation of activities that we associate with
human thinking, activities such as decision making,
problem solving and learning.
• It is the science and engineering of making intelligent
machines, especially intelligent computer programs.
• It is related to the similar task of using computers to
understand human intelligence, but AI does not have to
confine itself to methods that are biologically observable.
• AI means the simulation of human behavior and cognitive
processes on a computer and hence is the study of nature
of the whole space of intelligent minds.
 When did AI research start? (1947)
• After WWII, a number of people independently started to
work on intelligent machines.
• The English mathematician Alan Turing may have been
the first.
• He gave a lecture on it in 1947 and also may have
been the first to decide that AI was best researched
by programming computers rather than by building
machines.
• By the late 1950s, there were many researchers on AI,
and most of them were basing their work on
programming computers.
• The Turing Award is generally recognized as the highest
distinction in computer science and the "Nobel Prize of
computing".
 The Origins of AI
• One of the earliest and most significant papers
on machine intelligence “Computing
Machinery and Intelligence” was written by
British mathematician Alan Turing [Turing, 1950]
over sixty five years ago.
• It has stood up well to the test of time, and
Turing’s approach remains universal.
 The Origins of AI
Birth of AI occurred when Marvin Minsky & John McCarthy
organized the Dartmouth Conference in 1956
 Minsky (MIT), McCarthy (MIT/Stanford), Newell & Simon
(Carnegie),…

Marvin Minsky
John McCarthy died in October 2011
13
 What is intelligence
• Fast thinking?
• Knowledge?
• Ability to pass as a human?
• Ability to reason logically?
• Ability to learn?
• Ability to perceive and act upon one’s environment?
• Ability to play chess at grand-master’s level?

AI can be seen as an attempt to model aspects of human

thought on computers. It is also sometimes defined as
trying to solve by computer any problem that a human
can solve faster.
 What’s involved in Intelligence?
A) Ability to interact with the real world
— to perceive, understand, and act
— speech recognition, understanding, and synthesis
— image understanding (computer vision)
B) Reasoning and Planning
— modeling the external world
— problem solving, planning, and decision making
— ability to deal with unexpected problems, uncertainties
C) Learning and Adaptation
— we are continuously learning and adapting
Also: we want systems that adapt to us!
— Major thrust of industry research.
 Operational Definition of AI
• Systems that act like humans
– Turing test.
• Systems that think like humans
– Cognitive Science
• Systems that think rationally
– Logic-based AI (e.g. Expert Systems)
• Systems that act rationally
– Rational Agents (e.g. Robotics)
 What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?
Views of AI fall into four categories in Two
dimensions:
– Thought processes/reasoning vs. behavior/action
– Success according to human standards vs. success
according to an ideal concept of intelligence:
rationality:
Act like humans Act rationally
Think like humans Think rationally

The textbook advocates "acting rationally"

 I: Acting humanly
• Turing (1950) "Computing machinery and intelligence“
• "Can machines think?"  "Can machines behave
intelligently?“
• Operational test for intelligent behavior: the Imitation
Game (Turing Test)
• Predicted that by 2000, a machine might have a 30%
chance of fooling a average person for 5 minutes
• Suggested major components of AI: knowledge,
reasoning, language understanding, learning
– The ACM (Association for Computing Machinery) is
an international learned society for computing. It was
founded in 1947 and is the world's largest scientific
and educational computing society. It is a not-for-
profit professional membership group
 Acting humanly: The Turing test
Turing (1950) “Computing machinery and
intelligence”

Experimenter /
Interrogator

Control
 Turing test
In his paper Turing suggested:
• The Turing Test is a test designed to get us a step closer to
the answer of the question “Can machines act like human?”.
It consists of a person (judge) asking questions, and a
person and a machine answering.
• The person and the machine must reply as if they were both
human and, at the end of the conversation, the judge must
decide who the machine is.
• If the judge is tricked and chooses wrongly, it would be said
that the machine had “passed” the test, having the capability
to perform human-like conversations. Here, the whole
dialogue is done via written (typed) text.
• 5 minutes to ask whatever he or she wants.
• Task: to determine, only through the questions and
answers typed into a computer terminal, which is which.
 Turing Test
• The interrogator then has to guess if the conversation is
with a program or a person, the program passes the test
if it fools the interrogator 30% of the time.

• If can’t reliably distinguish the human from the computer,

then the computer is deemed intelligent.

• For example: ELIZA, MGONZ and ALICE are few

programs

Artificial intelligence is the enterprise of constructing

an artifact that can pass the Turing test.
 Objections to Turing Test?
Loebner Prize is the oldest Turing Test contest, started in
1991 by Hugh Loebner and the Cambridge Centre for
Behavioural studies. Since then, a number of institutions
across the globe have hosted the competition

Newell and Simon [1976]

• Turing test is as much a test of the judge as it is of the

machine.
• Promotes the development of artificial con-artists not
artificial intelligence (Loebner competition).
 Acting Humanly
• Turing suggested: computer would need to possess the
following capabilities:
– Natural Language Processing to enable it to communicate
– Knowledge representation to store what it knows or learns
– Automated reasoning to use the stored information to answer
questions and to draw new conclusions
– Machine learning to adapt to new circumstances and to detect and
extrapolate patterns.

• Turing’s test deliberately avoided direct physical interaction

between the interrogator and the computer.

• But the total Turing Test includes a video signal so that the
interrogator can test the subject’s perceptual abilities.
 Total Turing Test
• To pass Total Tutoring Test, a computer will need:
– Computer Vision to perceive objects and
– Robotics to manipulate objects and move about.

• These 6 disciplines compose most of AI, and Turing

deserves credit for designing a test that remains
relevant 65 years later.
 Total Turing Test
• The Total Turing Test is the original Turing Test taken
further.

• Instead of a written conversation, the judge is now able

to look at both the robot and the person and is, therefore,
allowed to ask both to act upon things to observe them.

• For instance, the judge may, after asking if they can

catch a baseball (and if so, how does it feel), throw each
of them a baseball and see if they catch it or not.
 II Thinking Humanly: Cognitive Science
• If we desire to make a program who thinks like human, we
need to get inside the actual workings of human minds.

• Both approaches, Cognitive Science and Cognitive

Neuroscience, share with AI on: the available theories
do not explain anything resembling human-level
general intelligence.

• The interdisciplinary field of cognitive science brings

together computer models from AI and experimental
techniques from psychology to try to construct
precise and testable theories of the workings of the
human minds.
 Different Algorithm, Similar Behavior
• Drew McDermott (New York Times, May, 1997):
Saying Deep Blue doesn’t really think about chess is
like saying an airplane doesn’t really fly because it
doesn’t flap its wings like birds.
ftp://ftp.cs.yale.edu/pub/mcdermott/papers/deepblue.txt
• The brain
— a neuron is the basic processing unit ( 1011)
— many more synapses (1014) connect the neurons
— cycle time: 10−3 seconds (1 millisecond)
• How complex can we make computers?
— 108 or more transistors per CPU
— supercomputer: hundreds of CPUs, 1010 bits of RAM
— cycle times: order of 10−9 seconds
 AI is pretty hard stuff
• I went to the grocery store, I saw the milk on the shelf
and I bought it.

• What did I buy?

• The milk?
• The shelf?
• The store?

• An awful lot of knowledge of the world is needed to

answer simple questions like this one.
 III Thinking Rationally: Laws of Thought
• The Greek philosopher Aristotle was one of the first to
attempt to codify “right thinking”.

• Yielded correct conclusions when given correct

premises.

• The laws of thought were supposed to govern the

operation of mind; their study initiated the field called
logic.

• For example: Socrates is a man; all men are mortal;

therefore it can be inferred: Socrates is mortal.
 Expert Systems
Search among rules, many of which can apply to a
situation:
If-conditions
the infection is primary-bacteremia
AND the site of the culture is one of the sterile sites
AND the suspected portal of entry is the gastrointestinal
tract
THEN
there is suggestive evidence (0.7) that infection is bacteroid

(from MYCIN)
 Expert System: Examples
• DENDRAL: solving the problem of inferring molecular
structure from the information provided by a mass
spectrometer.

• MYCIN: diagnosing blood infections handle uncertainty

• SHRDLU: understanding natural language (designed for

a specific domain)
 Problems with logic
1. Not all intelligent behaviour is mediated by logical
deliberation.

2. Its not easy to take informal knowledge and state it in the

formal terms required by logical notation, particularly when
the knowledge is less than 100% certain.

3. Even problems with just a few dozen facts can exhaust the
computational resources of any computer unless it has some
guidance as to which reasoning steps to try first.
 Systems that think ‘rationally’
• Humans are not always ‘rational?’
• Rational - defined in terms of logic?
• Logic can’t express everything (e.g. uncertainty)
• Logical approach is often not feasible in terms of
computation time (needs ‘guidance’)
• Uncertainty: cannot handle everything – you can guess
wrong ….
• So we cannot always predict when the systems will be
rational
IV Acting Rationally: Rational Agent approach
• In the laws of thought (Logic) approach to AI, the
emphasis is on correct inferences.
• Correct inference is not at all rationality, because there
are often situations where there is no provably correct
thing to do, yet something must still be done.
• There are also ways of acting rationally that can not be
said to involve inference.
• Rational behaviour: doing the right thing, that which
is expected to maximize goal achievement, given the
available information.
• Aristotle: Every art and every inquiry, and similarly every
action and pursuit, is thought to aim at some good.
 Agents
• An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its
environment through sensors and acting upon that
environment through actuators.
• Human agent: eyes, ears, and other organs for sensors;
hands, legs, mouth, and other body parts for actuators
• Robotic agent: cameras and infrared range finders for
sensors; various motors for actuators.
 Rational Agents
• An agent should strive to "do the right thing", based on
what it can perceive and the actions it can perform.
• But, what does it mean to do the right thing?
• “The right action” is the one that causes the agent to be
most successful.
• But, what does it mean the agent successes?
• The agent generates a sequence of actions according to
the percepts it receives. If the sequence is “desirable”,
then we say the agent performed well.
 Rational Agents
• An agent needs a performance measure, an objective
criterion for success of an agent's behavior.
• E.g., performance measure of a vacuum-cleaner agent
could be amount of dirt cleaned up, amount of time taken,
amount of electricity consumed, amount of noise
generated, and etc.
• But, can the above criteria really measure a vacuum-
cleaner agent’s performance?
• According to what you actually want in the environment
OR according to how you think the agent should behave?
 Summary
• Some definitions of AI are given as follows:
Humanly
The exciting new effort to make computers think …
machines with minds, in the full and literal sense
(Haugeland, 1985).
Thinking
The automation of activities that we associate with
human thinking, activities such as decision-making,
problem solving, learning (Bellman, 1978).
The art of creating machines that perform functions
that require intelligence when performed by people
(Kurzweil, 1990).
The study of how to make computers do things at
which, at the moment, people are better (Rich &
Knight, 1991).
Acting
Rationally
The study of mental faculties through the
use of computational models (Charniak
& McDermott, 1985).
The study of the computation that make
it possible to perceive, reason, and act
(Winston, 1992).
Computation Intelligence is the study of
the design of intelligent agents (Poole et
al., 1998).
AI … is concerned with intelligent
behavior in artifacts (Nilsson, 1998).
 AI is often divided into two classes:
• Strong AI
– Makes the bold claim that computers can be made to think
on a level at least equal to humans that they are capable
of cognitive mental states.
– This is the kind of AI that is portrayed in movies like Blade
runner and more recently AI, I Robot, Terminator series,
etc.
• Weak AI
– Simply states that some thinking – like features can be
added to computers to make them more useful,
– That machines can simulate human cognition, in other
words act as if they are intelligent. e.g. already existing
speech recognition software
– Involves GA, ANN, Evolutionary Computation etc.
 AI techniques
• Knowledge Representation: This technique addresses the problem
of capturing the full range of knowledge required for intelligent
behavior in a formal language i.e. one suitable for computer
manipulation. Some methods are:
– Predicate Calculus
– Semantic nets (Quillian)
– Frames (Marvin Minsky to represent common sense knowledge)
– Conceptual Dependency (Schank for natural language)
– Scripts (stereo type sequence of events)

• Search: It is problem solving technique that systematically explores a

space of problem states i.e. successive and alternative stages in the
problem–solving process. Some methods are:
– BFS
– DFS
– Best First Search
– MiniMax Search
– Alpha Beta Cutoff

• Machine Learning: (ANN, GA, Reinforcement Learning etc. )

 Why Study AI?
• AI helps
– computer scientists and engineers build more useful
and user-friendly computers,
– psychologists, linguists, and philosophers understand
the principles that constitute what we call intelligence.
• AI is an interdisciplinary field of study.
• Many ideas and techniques now standard in CS
(symbolic computation, time sharing, objects, declarative
programming, . . . ) were pioneered by AI-related
research.
 AI is Interdisciplinary
• AI is generally associated with Computer
Science, but it has many important links
with other fields such as:
– Maths,
– Biology,
– Cognition,
– Psychology,
– Philosophy and
– Neuroscience.
Disciplines which form the core of AI- inner circle
Fields which draw from these disciplines- outer
circle.

Robotics

NLP

Search,
Expert Reasoning,
Systems Learning

Planning

Computer
Vision
The Foundations of Artificial Intelligence
• Philosophy (428 B.C. – present)
• Mathematics (800 B.C. – present)
• Economics(1776 – present)
• Neuroscience (1861 – present)
• Psychology (1879 – present)
• Computer Engineering (1940 – present)
• Control theory and Cybernetics (1948 – present)
• Linguistics (1957 – present)
 AI Prehistory
• Philosophy: logic, methods of reasoning mind as physical system
foundations of learning, language, rationality

• Mathematics: formal representation and proof algorithms,

computation, (un)decidability, (in)tractability probability

• Psychology: adaptation phenomena of perception and motor

control experimental techniques (psychophysics, etc.)

• Economics: formal theory of rational decisions

• Linguistics: knowledge representation grammar

• Neuroscience: plastic physical substrate for mental activity

• Control theory: homeostatic systems, stability simple optimal agent

designs
 Allied Disciplines
Philosophy Knowledge Rep., Logic, Foundation of
AI (is AI possible?)
Maths Search, Analysis of search algos, logic
Economics Expert Systems, Decision Theory,
Principles of Rational Behavior
Psychology Behavioristic insights into AI programs
Brain Science Learning, Neural Nets
Physics Learning, Information Theory & AI,
Entropy, Robotics
Computer Sc. & Engg. Systems for AI
 State of the art
Which of the following can be done at present?
• Play a decent game of table tennis
• Drive along a curving mountain road
• Drive in the center of Cairo
• Buy a week’s worth of groceries at Berkeley Bowl
• Buy a week’s worth of groceries on the web
• Play a decent game of bridge
• Discover and prove a new mathematical theorem
• Write an intentionally funny story
• Give competent legal advice in a specialized area of law
• Translate spoken English into spoken Swedish in real
time
• Perform a complex surgical operation
 AI is among us!
Recent applications using AI techniques:
• Sony Aibo
– Entertainment robot with pet-like behaviour
– (http://www.us.aibo.com)
• Dragon Naturally Speaking
– (Dictation and voice recognition software)
– (http://www.dragonsys.com/naturallyspeaking)
• Ananova
– Virtual newscaster on the web
– (http://www.ananova.com/video)
• Honda Humanoid Robot
– Demo walking robot
– (http://www.honda.co.jp/robot)
 AI is among us!
More applications using AI techniques:
• Deep Blue
– Chess program that beat chess grand-master
Kasparov
– (http://researchweb.watson.ibm.com/deepblue)
• Mars Pathfinder
– Autonomous land vehicle sent to Mars
(http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/MPF)
• Aaron The Robot as an Artist
– http://www.scinetphotos.com/aaron.html
• Astronomy and Space Exploration
– http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/html/astro.html
• and many more!
 Interesting time for AI
• Deep Blue vs. Kasparov (May, ’97)
–first match won against world-champion
–“intelligent & creative” play
–200 million board positions per second
• Kasparov: “I could feel — I could smell — a new kind
of intelligence across the table.”
... still understood 99.9% of Deep Blue’s moves.
• Intriguing issue: How does human cognition deal with the
combinatorics of chess?
 Brief history of AI
By USA TODAY staff

• 1950: Alan Turing publishes, "Computing Machinery and

Intelligence.“ (Turing Test)

• 1956: John McCarthy regarded as the father of AI, organized a

conference to draw the talent and expertise of others interested in
machine intelligence for a month of brainstorming. He invited them
to Vermont for "The Dartmouth summer research project on artificial
intelligence." Although not a huge success, (explain) the Dartmouth
conference did bring together the founders in AI, and served to lay
the groundwork for the future of AI research.
– John McCarthy coins the term, "Artificial Intelligence" at a Dartmouth
computer conference.
– Demonstration of the first running AI program at Carnegie Mellon
University.
 Brief history of AI
• 1958: John McCarthy invents the Lisp language, an AI
programming language, at Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT). (Major breakthrough in AI history)
• 1963: MIT received a 2.2 million dollar grant from the US
government to be used in researching AI. The project
served to increase the pace of development in AI
research.
• 1964: Danny Bobrow shows that computers can
understand natural language enough to solve algebra
word programs (MIT).
• 1965: Joseph Weizenbaum builds ELIZA, an interactive
program that carries on a dialogue in English on any topic
(MIT).
 Brief history of AI
• 1969: Shakey, a robot, combines locomotion, perception
and problem solving (Stanford Research Institute).
• 1970: Advent of Expert Systems

• 1979: The first computer-controlled autonomous vehicle,

the Stanford Cart, is built.

• 1983: Danny Hillis co-founds Thinking Machines, the first

company to produce massively parallel computers.

• 1985: The drawing program, Aaron, created by Harold

Cohen, is demonstrated at AI conference.
 Brief history of AI
• 1990s: Major advances in all areas of AI. Significant demonstrations
in machine learning, intelligent tutoring, case-based reasoning,
multi-agent planning, scheduling, uncertain reasoning, data mining,
natural landscape understanding and translation, vision, virtual
reality and games.

• 1997: IBM computer Deep Blue beats world champion Garry

Kasparov in chess match.

• Late 1990s: Web crawlers and other AI-based information-

extraction programs become Web essentials.

• 2000: Interactive robot pets become commercially available. MIT

displays Kismet, a robot with a face that expresses emotions.
Carnegie Mellon robot Nomad explores remote regions of Antarctica
and locates meteorites.
Source: American Association of Artificial Intelligence and
Massachusetts of Technology Artificial Intelligence Lab.
The History of Artificial Intelligence

Timeline of major AI events

 Summary: History of AI
• 1943 McCulloch & Pitts: Boolean circuit model of brain
• 1950 Turing’s “Computing Machinery and Intelligence”
• 1950s Early AI programs, including Samuel’s checkers program,
• Newell & Simon’s Logic Theorist, Gelernter’s Geometry Engine
• 1956 Dartmouth meeting: “Artificial Intelligence” adopted
• 1965 Robinson’s complete algorithm for logical reasoning
• 1966–74 AI discovers computational complexity
• Neural network research almost disappears
• 1969–79 Early development of knowledge-based systems
• 1980–88 Expert systems industry booms
• 1988–93 Expert systems industry busts: “AI Winter”
• 1985–95 Neural networks return to popularity
• 1988– Resurgence of probability; general increase in technical
depth “Nouvelle AI”: A Life, GAs, soft computing
• 1995– Agents agents everywhere