Topic 4: ECOLOGY

A. Introduction to the ecology and biosphere

B. Population Ecology
C. Community Ecology
D. Conservation Ecology

BY: CHAN LAI YEE

PINKY TANG PINK KYI
SIEW JEK XI
A. Introduction to the ecology and biosphere

Lake Forest

1. Types of ecosystem
Ecosystem: a community of
Rainforest living organisms interacting Wetland
with each other and with the
non-living environment.

Desert Ocean Pond

 2. Biotic and abiotic components in ecosystem
Biotic components
: the living organisms in the
ecosystem
Producers
: directly or indirectly
produce food for almost all
other organisms
Consumers
: feeding on other organisms
Decomposers
: bacteria & fungi. obtain
energy from non-living
organic material, carry out
decomposition
Abiotic components : the non-living factors
pH value
: The pH value of the soil or water has a significant effect on
the distribution of organisms which live in a habitat.
Temperature
: affects the physiological activities of plants and animals
Light intensity
: affects the distribution and growth of plants and the
distribution of animals
Humidity (the amount of water vapour in the air)
: affects the rate of water loss from plants and animals
Topography (physical land features such as altitude, gradient
and aspect of a region)
: affects the humidity, temperature & light intensity, hence, it
determines the distribution and growth of organisms
Microclimate (the climate in a microhabitat)
: affects the population and distribution of organisms
 3. The flow of energy in the ecosystem

Energy flow in a food web : • The feeding relationship of living things is an energy
flow through a food web in an ecosystem.
• About 90% of the energy is lost when it is transferred
from one trophic level to the next.
Energy input from
the sun during Energy lost in Energy lost in
Energy lost in Energy lost in
photosynthesis respiration respiration
respiration respiration

90% 90% 90% 90%

10% 10% 10%
Producers Herbivores Carnivores Top carnivores

• Excretion and defaecation

• Death Energy lost in
respiration

Decomposition
4. Ecosystem services (Biogeochemical cycles)

Carbon cycle Hydrologic cycle

Phosphorus cycle Nitrogen cycle
B. Population Ecology

Population : A group of organisms of the same species occupying a particular area or habitat

Abiotic
factors

Emigration The population is and undisturbed

of the Biotic ecosystem and relatively stable in size
members of factors over time
a population
Factors
determining
the size of a
population
Some populations change in size over
Immigration Birth rate time by increasing rapidly first then
decreasing again.

Death rate
Allow ecologists to
estimate the total
population sizes and
densities. Eg : quadrat
sampling technique

Sampling techniques

Defined as the
number of organisms
per unit area or
volume of the habitat

Population density
Quadrat sampling technique

Used in the studies of plant

populations or populations of
immobile animals

A quadrat consists of a square or The number of quadrats are set

The size of the quadrat depends
rectangular frame with strings up randomly and data is collected
on size, distribution and density
that subdivide the quadrat into as samples to represent the
of the organisms being studied.
smaller squares. entire habitat.

Density :
Percentage frequency :
total number of individuals of a
number of quadrats containing
species in all quadrats
the species
__________________
__________________ x100
Number of quadrats sampled x
Number of quadrats sampled
area of each quadrat sampled
Capture, mark, release and recapture technique

To estimate the population size of mobile animals

such as mammals, birds, butterflies, woodlice and
other insects
A specific animal sample is captured
and marked with a ring, tag or ink

Population size : number of organisms

in the first sample x number of The marked animals are
organisms in the second sample released into the general
______________________________ population
number of marked organisms
recaptured

After a suitable period of time, a

Based in the data, the second animal sample is
population size of the captured and the number of
animal in the area is then marked animals in the second
obtained sample is counted and recorded
 C. Community Ecology

1. Interaction between biotic and abiotic factors in spreading life

Saprophytism Prey-predator Competition

: a type of interaction in which
living organisms obtain food from
dead and decaying organic matter
Symbiosis
• Saprophytic bacteria and fungi
are organisms that secrete
digestive enzymes to digests
organisms before absorbing the
Commensalism Mutualism Parasitism
digested nutrients
• Examples of saprophytes:
• Saprophytic bacteria
• Mucor sp.
• Mushrooms

Commensalism (+, 0)
: the commensal partner
benefits while the other
(host) derives neither benefit
or harm
Examples:
Clown fish and sea anemones
• A clown fish gains
protection from predators
by living amongst the
poisonous tentacles of the
sea anemones and by
feeding on the food
remnants of the sea
anemones. However, the
sea anemones are
relatively unaffected.
Symbiosis
Mutualism (+, +)
: a relationship between two
species of organisms in which
both organisms benefit
Examples:
Lichens
• A lichen is a mutualistic
relationship of an alga and a
fungus. The green alga
produces food for itself and for
the fungus. In return, the
fungus supplies carbon dioxide
and nitrogenous compounds
for the alga to manufacture its
own food. The alga is also
sheltered and protected from
dying out by the fungus.
Parasitism (+, -)
: a symbiotic relationship
in which parasite benefits
while the host is harmed
or loses.
Examples:
Rafflesia sp.
• Is a parasitic plant
which absorbs food
substances from the
tree’s phloem tissue by
using its haustporium.
 Prey-predator (+, -)
: occurs when an organism, the prey, is hunted and eaten by
a stronger and bigger organism called the predator

Increase in the size of the Number of the

Fall in the prey population
prey population predators increases

• The prey-predator relationship is

Level at which the prey stable. This interaction takes place The prey population
population starts to in a cycle and maintains the returns to the level at
fluctuate populations of both organisms in which it fluctuates
a dynamic equilibrium

Number of the Increase in the size of the

Fall in the prey population
predators decreases prey population
• A intraspecific competition occurs
when members of the same species
have the same niche and therefore
compete for exactly the same
resources.

Competition(+, -)
: is an interaction between
organisms which live together
in a habitat and compete for
the same resources that are in
limited supply

• In an interspecific competition (competition

between individuals of different species),
species which are stronger and have better
adaptations are usually more successful and
will survive the competition.
 D. Conservation Ecology
1. Human activities that threaten biodiversity :

Human activities Impacts

a) Deforestation • Soil erosion, landslides and flash floods

b) Burning of fossil fuels
• Loss of biodiversity
• Disruption of carbon and nitrogen cycle
• Climate changes
• Increase the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
• Causes green house effect and global warming

c) Intensive farming • Decreases the space and resources available for other species
• Inorganic fertilisers leads to eutrophication

d) Increase in domestic Toxic substances and other pollutants leak into ground and
waste and industrial waste pollute nearby sources
2. Sustainability of natural resources :

Conservation : efforts made in maintaining the quality of the natural environments and
their biological resources.
- These efforts strive to return an affected ecosystem to its natural equilibrium

Importance of
conservation of
biodiversity

- Organisms and ecosystems provide food,

Eg : replanting programmes
medicines and industrial products for humans
are carried out after careful
- Create balanced ecosystems for recreational
selective logging in a
activities (ecotourism) and research
rainforest
- Prevent the disruption of natural cycles such as
carbon and water cycles
- Sustains food webs in an ecosystem
- Provide natural water catchment areas
- Prevents the extinction of many species of
organisms (loss of biodiversity)