Flow Measurement of Natural Gas

 Introduction to Flow Measurement

 Attributes of Flow Devices

 Selection Criterion of Measurement Devices

 Different Method of Measurements

 Orifice Meter Design and Construction

 Types of Orifice Meter

 Flow Measurement with Orifice Meter

 Selection Criterion of Orifice Meter

 Flow Measurement with Gas Flow Prover

 Flow Measurement
• Flow is one of the most difficult variable to measure as it cannot
be measured directly like temperature and pressure

• It is calculated indirectly -
– pressure differential over a specified distance

– speed of rotation of a rotating element

– displacement rate in a measurement chamber

• Many flow measurement techniques or devices have been

developed for a wide range of applications
 Flow Measurement
• Actual Flow Rate
– The "actual" measured volume of gas must be compared against its
equivalent "standard" volume of gas.
• Standard or Base Flow Rate
– The standard conditions of pressure and temperature that are generally
used are: Pressure: 14.73 psia and Temperature: 5200 R (600 F). (AGA,
API)
– The equation to calculate the base volume is:

𝑝𝑜 𝑧𝑏 𝑇𝑏
𝑣𝑏 = 𝑣𝑜
𝑝𝑏 𝑧𝑜 𝑇𝑜
 Attributes of Flow Devices
• Accuracy
• Rangeability
• Repeatability
• Linearity
 Attributes of Flow Devices
i) Accuracy
– Measure of a flowmeter’s ability to indicate the actual flow rate within
a specified flow rate range.
– Ratio of the difference between the actual and measured rate to the
actual rate.
[𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 − 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒]
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦 = × 100
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

• Accuracy is reported in two ways:

i) % of full scale
ii) % of reading
 Attributes of Flow Devices
• Accuracy of 1% of full scale
– Measured flow rate is within ±1MMscfd, regardless of the value of the flow rate.
– E.g.: For a measured flow rate of 10MMscfd, the actual flowrate is between 9 and 11MMscfd
– E.g.: For a measured flow rate of 100MMscfd, the actual flowrate is between 99 and
101MMscfd.
• Accuracy of 1% of reading
– E.g.: For a measured flow rate of 10MMscfd, the actual flowrate is between 9.9 and 10.1
MMscfd
– E.g.: For a measured flow rate of 100MMscfd, the actual flowrate is between 99 and 101
MMscfd.
• % of reading results in a better overall performance because the error is proportional to the
magnitude of the rate.
• Positive displacement meters and turbine meters usually have a percent of reading accuracy
• Orifice meters and the rotameters have a percent of full scale accuracy in their specifications.
 Attributes of Flow Devices
ii) Rangeability:
– Ratio of the maximum flow rate to the minimum flow rate at
the specified accuracy
– Expressed as a ratio of x:1
– e.g.: If a flowmeter is having maximum flowrate as 50
MMSCMD and Minimum flow rate as 5MMSCMD for a
specified accuracy of ±1%, then rangeability is 10:1
 Attributes of Flow Devices
iii) Repeatability
– Ability of a meter to reproduce the same measured reading for identical
flow conditions over a period of time.
– Repeatability does not imply accuracy.
– A flow meter may have good repeatability, but less accuracy.
 Attributes of Flow Devices
iv) Linearity
– Measure of the deviation of the calibration curve of a meter
from a straight line.
– It can be specified over a given flow rate range or at a given
flow rate.
– Linear calibration curve is desirable because it leads to a
constant metering accuracy, with no portion of the scale
being relatively more/less sensitive than the other.
– Flow meter can have good linearity but less accuracy.
Selection Criterion of Measurement Devices
• Accuracy & Reliability of the devices.
• Range of flow rate - Maximum & Minimum
• Range of flow temperature and pressure
• Fluid to be measured - Gas or Liquid.
• Maintenance requirement
• Expected life of the device, its cost both capital and operating.
• other considerations, simplicity, availability, power
consumption, susceptibility to theft etc.
 Method of Measurement
• Differential Pressure Method
– Flow rate is measured using the pressure difference
over a flow interval or restriction
– Two types
• Pressure difference is measured across a flow restriction e.g.
orifice meter, venturimeter
• Pressure difference is measured upon impact e.g. pitot tube
 Orifice Meter
• It consists of a thin flat metal plate (0.115-0.398 inches) with a circular hole,
centered in a pair of flanges in a straight pipe section.
• It is held perpendicular to the direction of the flow.
• The pressure difference is measured across this plate to yield the flow rate.
• Pressure taps are provided on the upstream and downstream end in the fitting
that hold the orifice.
• Rugged, accurate, simple and economical device and can handle a wide range
of flow rates.
• The orifice fittings are designed to permit easy changing and inspection of the
orifice plate.
• Orifice meters have a rangeability of about 3.5:1, with an accuracy of the
order of ±0.5%.
• The sharp edged plate is subject to wear and a consequent loss in accuracy.
Orifice Meter
Vena-contracta
 Venturimeter
• It is a short pipe consisting of two conical parts with a short portion of
uniform cross-section in between.
• Short portion has the minimum area and is known as the throat.
• The two conical portions have the same base diameter, but one is having
a shorter length with a larger cone angle while the other is having a
larger length with a smaller cone angle.
• The venturimeter is always used in a way that the upstream part of the
flow takes place through the short conical portion while the downstream
part of the flow through the long one.
• This ensures a rapid converging passage and a gradual diverging passage
in the direction of flow to avoid the loss of energy due to separation.
• The velocity reaches its maximum value and pressure reaches its
minimum value at the throat. Subsequently, a decrease in the velocity
and an increase in the pressure take place in course of flow through the
divergent part.
 Venturimeter
• Similar to an orifice meter, with the advantage of low
pressure loss

• Preferred choice where less pressure drop is available.

• Venturimeter have a rangeability of 3.5:1, with an

accuracy of ±1%.
 Flow Nozzle
• It has a rounded edge which aids in handling of solids in the flow
stream.
• Similar to orifice meters.
• Flow nozzles are used for high flow rate streams, 60% greater
rate of flow than an orifice plate.
• Rangeability - 3.5:1
• Accuracy : ±1.5 - 2%.
 Pitot (Impact) Tube
• Measures the difference between the
static pressure at the wall of the flow
conduit and the flowing pressure at its
impact tip
• At the tip kinetic energy of the flowing
stream is converted into pressure.
• It gives the flow velocity only at a point
(at the tip).
• The tip can easily be clogged by the
liquids or solids.
• Poor accuracy of this device, it is not
used very often, except on a temporary
basis.
 Displacement Meters
• Displacement meters measure the volumetric displacement of the fluid at
flowing conditions.
• Displacement meters are also called as positive displacement meters
• The flow is divided into isolated flow volumes and number of these
volumes are counted to give flow rate
• Displacement meters are commonly two types:
– Rotary or impeller type
• Rotating element
– Slide vane diaphragm type
• Piston-cylinder arrangement.

• They contain measuring element (or chambers) of known volume, with

valves that channel the gas into and out of these measuring element and
counters to count the number of times the measuring element is filled per
unit time .
 Turbine Flow Meter
• They consist of a turbine or propeller that turn at a speed
proportional to the velocity of the gas flowing through it.

• Convert linear velocity to rotational speed.

• The speed of the turbine is measured as pulses that give the rate.
These pulses are counted to give the instantaneous rate or
accumulated to give the cumulative rate.
 Turbine Meter
• The driving torque for the propeller is proportional to the fluid
density and the square of the fluid velocity.
• Any fluctuation in velocity, caused by pressure fluctuation,
turbulences, or unsteady state flow conditions, will cause the turbine
meter to give a higher than actual value.
• To allow sustained accuracy and trouble free operation, filters are
used ahead of turbine meter. Turbine Meter typically have
• Rangeability : 100:1
• Accuracy : ± 0.25 %
• Repeatability : ± 0.05 %
Turbine Meter
 Orifice Types
• Concentric (Centered)
– commonly used because of its low cost, ease of fabrication and ease of
calibration.
• Eccentric (Off-center) and Segmental (part of circle).
– Useful for two-phase flow streams
– Flow streams with suspended solids such as dirty gases or slurries.
– Rangeability of 3:1
– Accuracy of ±1.5 to ±2%
– Less accurate than the concentric type.
 Location of Pressure Tapping
The magnitude of the measured pressure differential is affected by the
location of points across the orifice between which it is measured.

Types of pressure tap locations that have been used are as follows:

i) Flange Type: The Pressure is measured 1” from the up-stream face of

the plate and 1” from the down stream face of the orifice plate . This is
most common type of pressure tapping.

ii) Pipe Taps: The pressure is measured 2.5 pipe ID from the upstream
and 8 pipe ID from the down stream (where the pressure recovery is
maximum) face of the orifice plate. This type require location
tolerances 10 time higher than the flange type.
 Location of Pressure Tapping
iii) Vena-contracta: The point at which velocity is highest and the
pressure is lowest is called vena-contracta. The pressure is measured
1 pipe ID upstream face of the plate & at vena-contracta downstream.
It is used where flow rate is fairly constant because the location of the
vena-contracta depend on the orifice size and the orifice size is
chosen depends upon flow rate. This type of tapping provide greater
accuracy because it gives a greater pressure drop.

iv) Corner Type: The pressure taps are located immediately adjacent to
up stream & down stream faces of the orifice plate. The use of this
design is limited.
Location of Pressure Tapping
 Straightening Vanes
• It consist of a symmetrical bundle of small diameter tubing welded
together in a concentric pattern.

• These vanes are placed in the upstream section of the orifice meter
in order to eliminate any flow irregularities such as eddies, swirls,
& cross currents caused by pipe fitting, valves etc preceding the
orifice plate, that may affect the meter accuracy.
 Straightening Vanes
• The diameter of each tube should be less than ¼ of ID of
the pipe
• Length to diameter ratio of the tube must be greater than 10.
• Installation of the vanes reduces the length of the pipe
required upstream of the orifice considerably.
• Vanes, should not be used unless absolutely necessary,
because they introduce additional pressure loss, clog easily
and are subject to erosion.
 Size and Location of Orifice

• The ratio of the orifice to pipe diameter should be –

– Flange Taps - Between 0.15 and 0.70
– Pipe Taps - Between 0.20 and 0.67

• The thickness of the orifice plate at the orifice edge should not
exceed 1/50 of the pipe diameter and 1/8 of the orifice
diameter.
• The orifice location should be such as to have a stabilized flow
to ensure proper metering.
 Advantages of Orifice Meter
• Orifice flow meters are very robust and can be used in a wide
range of nominal diameters.

• The differential pressure method is well known and has a large

installed base.

• Suitable for wide ranges of temperature and pressure.

• No calibration required as the process is standardized.

• The electronics required in addition can be used over a long

distance from the measuring location.
Factors Affecting Orifice Meter Accuracy
• Incorrect estimate of orifice size.
• Convex or concave contouring of the orifice plate.
• Thick & dull orifice edge.
• Eccentricity of orifice with respect to pipe.
• Flow disturbance caused by insufficient flow stabilizer.
• Imprecise location of pressure trapping.
• Pulsating flow.
• Build up or deposition of sediment on the upstream face of the
orifice plate.
• Liquid accumulation in the bottom of horizontal pipe
 The General Orifice-Meter Equation
The basic energy equation, for a steady system, can be expressed as:
Change in internal energy + Change in kinetic energy + Change in potential
energy + work done on the fluid + heat energy added to the fluid – shaft
work done by fluid on the surroundings = 0
Thus on a unit mass basis, the energy balance for a fluid under steady state
flow conditions can be written as:
𝑑𝑣 2 𝑔
𝑑𝑈 + + 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑 𝑝 𝑉 + 𝑑𝑄 − 𝑑𝑊 = 0
2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐
It is converted into mechanical energy balance by using:
𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑 𝑝 𝑉 = dh = Tds + V dp
𝑑𝑣 2 𝑔
Tds + V dp + + 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝑄 − 𝑑𝑊 = 0
2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐
For ideal process: ds = - dQ/T. Since no process is ideal (reversible),
therefore
ds ≥ - dQ/T
or Tds = -dQ + dlw
where lw is the lost work due irreversibilities such as friction.
 The General Orifice-Meter Equation
𝑑𝑣 2 𝑔
𝑑𝑙𝑤 + V dp + + 𝑑𝑧 − 𝑑𝑊 = 0
2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐
The relationship for orifice meter can be derived from this energy equation
written between two points in the flowing stream
Point 1 - point upstream of the orifice plate
Point 2 - Orifice throat
 The General Orifice-Meter Equation
The elevation change between point 1 and 2 is zero and no work is
done by the flowing fluid

To avoid complexity lw is avoided and will be considered during orifice

constants. Multiplying the above equation by fluid density ρ (lbm/ft3)

Assume constant fluid average density ρav (lbm/ft3) for simplicity and
integrating
 The General Orifice-Meter Equation
Converting pressure into psia (commonly used unit of pressure)

The mass flow rate m (lbm/sec) = ρvA, A is the cross-sectional area of

flow in ft2, assuming steady state flow ( mass flow rate remains
constant)

Let d1 and d2 be the diameter of the pipe and the orifice respectively
and assuming β = d2/d1
 The General Orifice-Meter Equation
The pressure differential p1 – p2 is expressed in inches of water, using
Δp = ρgΔh/gc

Using gas law, the gas density (ρav) is given as

 The General Orifice-Meter Equation
Equating Δp and ρav in the mass flow rate equation

The mass flow rate at standard conditions (lbm/sec) is related to flow

rate (scf/hr) by the following expression
m= qsc ρav / 3600
Using standard conditions (psc = 14.73 psia , Tsc= 5200R and Zsc = 1)

Equating above equations and substituting R = 10.73 psia-ft3 / lbmole-

0R
 The General Orifice-Meter Equation

Where
qsc is in scf/hr
d2 is in inches
Δh is in inches of water
pav is in psia
Tav is in 0R
C, β, γg and Zav are dimensionless
 The General Orifice-Meter Equation
The above equation is written as
qsc = K0 [hw pf]0.5
where qsc = rate of flow at base conditions, scf/hr
hw = differential pressure at 60 oF, inches of water
pf = absolute static pressure of the flowing fluid, psia
The constant K is expressed as a product of several different factors as
follows:
K = Fb Fr Y Fpb Ftb Ftf Fg Fpv Fm Fl Fa
where
Fb = Basic orifice factor
Fr = Reynolds Number factor
Y = Expansion factor
Fpb = Pressure base factor
Ftb = temperature base factor
 The General Orifice-Meter Equation
Ftf = flowing temperature factor
Fg = specific gravity factor
Fpv = super compressibility factor
Fm = Manometer factor
Fl = Gauge location factor
Fa = Orifice thermal expansion factor
These factors are available in literature for two pressure tap types
– flange taps and pipe taps.
 Orifice Meter Selection
• The most common factors that need to be considered in choosing
an orifice metering system are:
 Flow rate: flowrate uniformity, maximum and minimum
flowrates expected.
 Pressure: expected static and differential pressures, and their
range and permissible pressure variations.
• The size of the orifice affects the range of the flow rates that can
be measured and the pressure differential that can be obtained.
 Gas Flow Prover
• Critical flow prover is similar to an orifice meter.
• It uses a circular orifice plate with its own orifice coefficient and flowrate
equation, and a static pressure measurement.
• Critical flow provers require the gas rate to be in "critical flow.“
• If the upstream pressure drops too low, then critical conditions may cease to exist,
and the standard critical flow prover equation will no longer apply.
• Critical flow assumes that the pressure upstream of a plate is at least twice as
large as the downstream pressure.
• If the above condition exists, then the velocity of the gas in the orifice is at the
speed of sound. Since a pressure wave travels at the speed of sound, this means
that any change in the downstream pressure has no effect on the upstream
pressure.
• Critical flow provers do not require differential pressure to calculate a flow rate;
only the upstream static pressure measurement is required.
• When flowing at critical conditions, gas flow rates are directly proportional to
upstream pressure.
 Gas Flow Prover
• Non-critical flow occurs when the upstream pressure is less than twice the
downstream pressure.
• If the gas is vented to atmosphere after leaving the critical flow prover, non-
critical flow would occur when the upstream (gauge) pressure falls below 15 psi
(g) or 100 kPa (g).
• It is recommended that operators try to avoid non-critical flow conditions.
• Critical flow provers are excellent gas measurement tools when gas is released
into the atmosphere.
• With the atmospheric pressure acting as the downstream side of the prover, it is
relatively easy to maintain enough upstream pressure to maintain critical flow
conditions.
• The lack of a differential pressure measurement simplifies the operations and
flow rate calculations.
 Gas Flow Prover
• The flow prover plates, pressure taps, and piping for the critical
flow prover must meet certain specifications.
• Critical flow provers come in two sizes: 2 in. and 4 in.
• The size corresponds to the internal diameter of the prover.
• Each flow prover size has a set of orifice plates, each of which has
its own coefficient.
• The critical flow prover plate is actually a highly machined
component, and its dimensions must adhere to certain
specifications.
• If the plate’s orifice is damaged in any way, it can no longer
measure gas rates with any accuracy, and it must be replaced.
 Flow Prover Equation
The flow prover equation is
𝐶×𝑃
𝑞𝑔 =
𝐺×𝑇 2
The right hand side of the critical flow equation below is multiplied by Fpv, Fpb, and
Ftb which were defined in the calculation of orifice
coefficient:
where:
qg = gas flow rate (mscf/day)
C = orifice coefficient
P = absolute pressure (psia)
G = gas gravity
T = absolute temperature (0R)
 Critical Flow Prover Table of Coefficients
Prover Orifice Size Coefficients for the Coefficients for the
(inches) two-inch Prover four-inch Prover
1/8 6.30 -
1/4 25.86 24.92
3/8 56.68 56.01
1/2 101.8 156.1
5/8 154.0 223.7
3/4 224.9 304.2
7/8 309.3 396.3
1 406.7 499.2
1 1/8 520.8 616.4
1 1/4 657.5 742.1
1 3/8 807.8 884.3
1 1/2 1002.0 1208.0
1 3/4 - 1596.0