Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
1 0 −2
* 2 , 1 & 0 are linearly independent & spans all 3-D space.
3 2 1
* There can be no more than n linearly independent vectors in
n-D space.
* Linear Independence(Contd)
* A set of vectors {v1, v2, …, vk} is linearly independent if the
only set of scalars c1, c2, …, ck that satisfies eqtn 2 is the set
c1 = c2 = … = ck = 0
c1v1 + c2v2 + … + ckvk = 0 --------Equation 2
*Example: If 𝒗 = 0
1
&𝒖=
1
1
,
𝒗.𝒖
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝒗 𝒖
0.1 +(1.1) 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = =
[ 0.0 + 1.1 ]1/2 +[ 1.1 + 1.1 ]1/2 2
0
𝜃 = 45
* Equation for angle in terms of components of vectors gives:
σ𝒏
𝒊=𝟏 𝒗𝒊 𝒖𝒊
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝟏/𝟐 𝟏/𝟐
(σ𝒏
𝒊=𝟏 𝒗𝒊
𝟐) (σ𝒏
𝒊=𝟏 𝒖 𝒊
𝟐)
*Geometrical interpretation- Imagine moving 2 vectors around
in space like hands on a clock. If we hold length of vectors
constant, then equation for angle says that inner product is
proportional to the cosine of angle. Also Inner product 𝒗. 𝒖 =
𝒗 𝒖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃,
* When 𝜃=00 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1 is maximum, 𝒗. 𝒖 is also maximum.
* When 𝜃=900 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0 , 𝒗. 𝒖 = 𝟎, vectors are said to be
orthogonal.
* When 𝜃=1800 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = −1 is minimum, 𝒗. 𝒖 is also minimum and
vectors point in opposite directions.
*Closer the 2 vectors are, larger the inner product.
*More the vectors point in opposite directions, the more
negative the inner product.
*Orthogonal vectors are vectors which lie at right angles to one
another.
*Set of orthogonal vectors- Every vector in set is orthogonal to
every other vector in the set. i.e., every vector lies at right
angle to every other vector. Eg: standard basis in 3-D space.
*Every orthogonal set is linearly independent.
*When we choose a basis for a space, we typically choose an
orthogonal basis.
3. Projections-
* Projection of one vector onto another.
* 𝒙 is the projection of 𝒗 on 𝒘:
𝑥 = 𝒗 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Fig.1 Fig.2
* Inner products in 2 dimensions(Contd)-
𝒗𝑥 . 𝒘𝑥 𝒗𝑦 . 𝒘𝑦
𝑙 = 𝒗 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑙𝑥 + 𝑙𝑦 = +
𝒘 𝒘
𝒗𝑥 . 𝒘𝑥 + 𝒗𝑦 . 𝒘𝑦
𝒗 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝒘
𝒗. 𝒘
𝒗 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝒘
𝒗. 𝒘
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝒗 𝒘
5. Algebraic properties of inner product-
* 𝒄 & 𝒄𝑖 - any scalar.
* 𝒗 and 𝒘 – n-D vector.
𝒗. 𝒘= 𝒘. 𝒗-------------Eqtn 1
𝒄 𝒗. 𝒘 = 𝒄𝒗 . 𝒘 = 𝒗. (𝒄𝒘) -------------Eqtn 2
𝒘. 𝒗1 + 𝒗2 = 𝒘. 𝒗1 + 𝒘. 𝒗2 ------------Eqtn 3
Combining Eqtn 2 & 3,
𝒘. 𝒄1 𝒗1 + 𝒄2 𝒗2 = 𝒄1 (𝒘. 𝒗1 ) + 𝒄2 (𝒘. 𝒗2 )
In general,
𝒘. 𝒄1 𝒗1 + 𝒄2 𝒗2 + ⋯ 𝒄𝑛 𝒗𝑛 = 𝒄1 𝒘. 𝒗1 + 𝒄2 𝒘. 𝒗2 + ⋯ 𝒄𝑛 𝒘. 𝒗𝑛
*
Fig.1 Fig.2
v2 Wv2
Wv1
v1