Ch14 Modified Brain

Principles of
Anatomy and
Physiology
14th Edition
CHAPTER 14
The Brain and Cranial Nerves
Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Introduction
The purpose of the chapter is to:
1. Understand how the brain is organized,
protected, and supplied with blood
2. Compare and contrast the various areas of the
brain and their functions
3. Discuss the functional organization of the brain
4. Learn about cranial nerve structure and function
The Brain
Contains about 97% of the body's neural tissue
Average weight is around 3lb ( 1.4 kg)
 Regions of the brain
 Cerebrum
 Cerebellum
 Diencephalon
 Mesencephalon ( Midbrain )
 Pons
 Medulla Oblongata
Principal Parts of the Brain
Brain protection and support
 Physical protection
• Bones of the cranium
• Cranial Meninges
• CSF
 Biochemical isolation
BBB – Blood- brain barrier
Cranial meninges
 Pia, arachnoid, and dura mater
 Cranial dura mater is composed of 2 layers
Cranial Bones and Meninges
Extensions of the Dura Mater
CSF
 Surrounds the CNS structures
 Interchanges with interstitial fluid of the brain
 Cushions neural structures
 Supports the brain
 Transports nutrients, chemical massagers,
gases, and waste products
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
CSF is a liquid that protects the brain and spinal
cord against chemical and physical injuries and it
carries oxygen, glucose, and other important
substances from the blood to nervous tissue cells
Ventricles and the Choroid Plexus
 The ventricles of the brain contain CSF
 The choroid plexuses make CSF
CSF Flow
Blood supply to the brain
 Supply nutrients and oxygen

 Delivered via internal carotid arteries and
vertebral arteries
 Removed from dural sinuses by internal
jugular veins
Blood Flow to the Brain
Blood flows to the brain via the vertebral and
carotid arteries and flows back to the heart
via the jugular veins
Importance of Blood Flow to the Brain
The brain utilizes about 20% of the body’s

oxygen supply
 Any interruption of the oxygen supply can result in
weakening, permanent damage, or death of brain
cells
 Glucose deficiency my produce mental confusion,
dizziness, convulsions, and unconsciousness
Blood –Brain Barrier (BBB)
The BBB protects brain cells from harmful
substances and pathogens by serving as a
selective barrier to prevent passage of many
substances from the blood into the brain
 The BBB can prevent the entry of therapeutic
drugs
 Injury to the brain may cause a breakdown of the
BBB, permitting the passage of normally restricted
substances into the brain tissue
Regions of the Brain
Anatomy Overview:
 The Nervous System: Overview
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 Mesencephalon or Midbrain
• Processes sight, sound, and associated reflexes
• Maintain consciousness
 Pons
• Connects cerebrum to the brain stem
• Involved in somatic and visceral motor control
• Modify respiratory rhythm
 Medulla Oblongata
• Connects the brain to the spinal cord
• Relays information
• Regulates autonomic functions such as heart rate, blood
pressure, digestion, breathing rate.
The Brain Stem
The brain stem is composed of the:
 Medulla oblongata
 Pons
 Midbrain
Medulla Oblongata
The medulla oblongata is continuous with the
superior aspect of the spinal cord and contains
portions of both motor and sensory tracts
The medullary pyramids are paired
white matter structures of the brainstem's
medulla oblongata that contain motor
fibers of the corticospinal and
corticobulbar tracts – known together as
the pyramidal tracts. The lower limit of the
pyramids is marked when the fibers cross
(decussate).
Medulla Oblongata
Cranial nerves
 Vestibulocochlear and
hypoglossal
Structural regions
 Pyramids
 Inferior olivary nuclei
Functional regions
 Heart rate,  swallowing,
 respiratory rate,  coughing,
 vasoconstriction,  vomiting,
 sneezing, hiccupping
Pons
The pons is located superior to the medulla
oblongata and it links parts of the brain with
one another by way of tracts
Pons
Cranial nerves
 Trigeminal, abducens, facial, and vestibular
branch of vestibulocochlear
Functional regions
 Relays nerve impulses related to voluntary
skeletal muscle movements from cerebrum to
cerebellum
 Pneumotaxic and apneustic areas (control of
respiration)
Midbrain
The midbrain is located superior to the medulla
oblongata and extends from the pons to the
diencephalon
Midbrain
Cranial nerves
 Oculomotor and trochlear
Structural regions
 Cerebral peduncles, corpora quadrigemina, substantia
nigra, red nuclei, and medial lemniscus
Functional regions
 Conveys motor impulses from the cerebrum to the
cerebellum and spinal cord,
 sends sensory impulses from the spinal cord to the
thalamus, and
 regulates auditory and visual reflexes
Midbrain
Reticular Formation
The reticular formation helps regulate muscle tone,
alerts the cortex to incoming sensory signals, and
is responsible for maintaining consciousness and
awakening from sleep
The Cerebellum
The cerebellum occupies the inferior and
posterior aspects of the cranial cavity and
consists of two hemispheres and a central
vermis
The Cerebellum
The cerebellum
functions in the
coordination of
skeletal muscle
contractions and in
the maintenance of
normal muscle tone,
posture, and balance
Diencephalon
 centrally located and is nearly surrounded by the
cerebral hemisphere.
 It includes the thalamus, hypothalamus and
epithalamus.
 Links cerebrum with cerebellum
 Integrates sensory information and motor
commands
The Diencephalon
The diencephalon is composed of the:
 Thalamus
 Hypothalamus
 Epithalamus
The thalamus
 integrates and relays sensory information to the
cortex
 motor and memory control.
Thalamus
The thalamus is located superior to the
midbrain and contains nuclei that serve as
relay stations for all sensory impulses
(except smell) to the cerebral cortex
Hypothalamus
 Provides subconscious control of the Skeletal muscles
 Controls autonomic functions
 Coordinates activities of nervous and endocrine systems
 Secretes hormones: ADH – antidiuretic hormone and Oxytocin
 Produces emotional and behavioral drive
The feeding center ( hunger )
The thirst center
 Coordinates voluntary and autonomic functions
 Regulates body temperature
 Controls circadian rhythm ( day-night cycle)
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is found inferior to the
thalamus, has four major regions, controls
many body activities, and is one of the major
regulators of homeostasis
Epithalamus
The epithalamus lies superior and posterior to the
thalamus and contains the pineal gland which
secretes melatonin and habenular nuclei which are
involved in olfaction
Circumventricular Organs (CVOs) of
the Diencephalon
 Parts of the diencephalon, the CVOs, can
monitor chemical changes in the blood
because they lack a blood-brain barrier
 CVOs include the hypothalamus (a portion
of it), pineal gland, and the pituitary gland
 CVOs coordinate homeostatic activities of the
endocrine and nervous systems
The pituitary gland
 The pituitary gland produces hormones that
control many functions of other endocrine
glands. It regulates the production of many
hormones that have a role in growth,
metabolism, sexual response, fluid and mineral
balance, and the stress response.
Cerebrum
 The largest part of the brain
 Controls higher mental functions
 Processes somatic sensory and motor
information
 Divided into two hemispheres
 Surface layer of gray matter ( neural cortex )
The Cerebrum
The cerebral cortex is composed of gray
matter which contains billions of neurons
 Gyri, fissures, and sulci can be identified on the
cortex
Deep to the cortex is white matter composed
of tracts of neurons that connect parts of the
brain to each other and the spinal cord
 A bundle of white matter tracts called the corpus
callosum connects the right and left hemispheres
of the cerebrum
Neural ( cerebral ) Cortex
Folded surface increases surface area
 Elevated ridges – gyri
 Shallow depressions – sulci
 Deep grooves – fissures
Anatomical Details of the Cerebral
Cortex
Lobes of the Cerebrum
The cerebrum can be divided into the:
 Frontal lobe
 Parietal lobe
 Temporal lobe
 Occipital lobe
 Insula
Cerebral White Matter
Basal Nuclei of the Cerebrum
The basal nuclei are paired masses of gray
matter in each cerebral hemisphere
The basal ganglia (or basal nuclei) is a group of
subcortical nuclei in the brains of vertebrates,
which are situated at the base of the forebrain.
Basal ganglia are strongly interconnected with the

cerebral cortex, thalamus, and brainstem.
The basal ganglia are associated with a variety of

functions including:
• control of voluntary motor movements,
• procedural learning,
• routine behaviors or "habits" such as teeth
grinding, eye movements, cognition, and
emotion.
The main components of the basal ganglia – as defined
functionally – are the striatum; both dorsal striatum (caudate
nucleus and putamen) and ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens
and olfactory tubercle), globus pallidus, ventral pallidum,
substantia nigra, and subthalamic nucleus. Each of these
components has a complex internal anatomical and
neurochemical organization.
The striatum (dorsal and ventral), receives input from many brain
areas beyond the basal ganglia, but only sends output to other
components of the basal ganglia.
The pallidum receives input from the striatum, and sends
inhibitory output to a number of motor-related areas.
The substantia nigra is the source of the striatal input of the
neurotransmitter dopamine, which plays an important role in basal
ganglia function.
The subthalamic nucleus receives input mainly from the striatum
and cerebral cortex, and projects to the globus pallidus.
The importance of these subcortical nuclei for normal brain
function and behavior is emphasized by the numerous and
diverse neurological conditions associated with basal ganglia
dysfunction, which include:
 disorders of behavior control such as Tourette syndrome,
hemiballismus(is a very rare movement disorder, a type of
chorea), and obsessive–compulsive disorder;
 dystonia;
 addiction; and
 movement disorders, the most notable of which are
Parkinson's disease, which involves degeneration of the
dopamine-producing cells in the substantia nigra pars
compacta, and
Huntington's disease, which primarily involves damage
to the striatum.
The limbic System
A functional grouping that

 Establishes emotional states
 Links conscious functions of the cerebral
cortex with autonomic functions of the brain
stem
 Facilitates memory storage and retrieval
The Limbic System
The limbic system is found in the cerebral
hemispheres and diencephalon
Functional Organization of the
Cerebral Cortex
Specific types of sensory, motor, and
integrative signals are processed in certain
regions of the cerebral cortex. There are:
 Sensory areas
 Motor areas
 Association areas
Sensory Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
Wernicke's area, also called Wernicke's speech area, is one of
the two parts of the cerebral cortex linked to speech (the other is
Broca's area).
It is involved in the comprehension or understanding of written and
spoken language (in contrast to Broca's area that is involved in the
production of language).
Receptive aphasia, also known as Wernicke's aphasia, fluent
aphasia, or sensory aphasia, is a type of aphasia in which an
individual is unable to understand language in its written or spoken
form. Even though they can speak using grammar, syntax, rate,
and intonation, they typically have difficulty expressing themselves
meaningfully through speech. any diagnosed with Wernicke's
aphasia have effortless speech and have difficulty with repetition in
words and sentences. A person with Wernicke's aphasia may
speak over others during conversation, which is "press of speech",
and may not be aware that their message does not have a full
meaning. When experienced with Broca's aphasia, the patient
displays global aphasia.
Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
Association Areas of the Cerebral
Cortex
Cortical homunculus
Hemispheric Lateralization
Brain Waves
Autonomic nervous system
 The communication between the CNS and
PNS and the entire body happen by two ways:
By 12 pairs of the cranial nerves
By 31 pair of the spinal nerves
There are two aspects :
• Voluntary control of will and
• Physiological activity that is not voluntary
There are two divisions of the ANS:
The autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic
nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system.
Sympathetic nervous system promotes a "fight or flight"
response, corresponds with arousal and energy generation,
and inhibits digestion
forms response to stress, danger, excitement, exercise,
emotional, embarrassment. Increases RR, HR, release
adrenaline and other stress hormones
The parasympathetic nervous system has been said to
promote a "rest and digest" response, promotes calming of
the nerves return to regular function, and enhancing digestion.
forms response when the body is relaxed, resting, feeding
Cranial Nerves
Cranial Nerves
Cranial Nerve
Anatomy Overview:
 The Nervous System: Overview
Once in the animation, click on “cranial nerves”
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Olfactory, I
Optic, II
Oculomotor, III
Trochlear, IV
Trigeminal, V
Abducens, VI
Facial, VII
Vestibulocochlear, VIII
Glossopharyngeal, IX
Vagus, X
Accessory, XI
Hypoglossal, XII
Development of the Nervous System
The development of the nervous system
begins with a thickening of the ectoderm
called the neural plate
Development of the Nervous System
The parts of the brain develop from
secondary vesicles
Aging and the Nervous System
Aging can result in:
 Loss of neurons
 Diminished capacity for sending nerve impulses to
and from the brain
 Diminished ability to process information
 Decreased conduction velocity
 Slowing of voluntary motor movements
 Increased reflex time
 Degenerative changes in vision, hearing, sight,
taste, smell, touch, and balance
Common Diseases and Disorders
Degenerative disorders:
• Alzheimer’s disease– irreversible dementia
• Parkinson’s disease – slowly progressive
disease caused by a lack of dopamine
• Multiple sclerosis- progressive destruction of
the myelin sheaths of CNS
Inflammation disorders:
 Meningitis- inflammation of the meninges, may be
caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, chemical toxins.
 Encephalitis-inflammation of the brain frequently caused
b viruses.
Trauma:
 Concussion- loss of consciousness as the result of a
blow to the head.
 Contusion- bruising of brain tissue as a result direct
trauma. Neurological problems consist longer than 24
hours.
 Herniated vertebral disk- protrusion of the inner region
of an intervertebral disk through the outer fibrous ring of
the disk
Vascular disorders
 Stroke, caused b disrupted blood supply to the
brain because of thrombosis, embolism or
hemorrhage. Symptoms depend on the region of
the brain affected.
 Hemorrhage, escape of blood from ruptured blood
vessels; if severe, it may lead to hypovolemia and
circulatory shock. It may be epidural, subdural or
into the brain tissue.
Malformations:
 Anencephaly- congenital disorder with cranial
vault and cerebral hemispheres missing.
 Hydrocephalus- abnormal accumulation of
CSF within the ventricles of the cerebrum; in
the infant this lead s to an enlargement of the
cranium.
Toxins:
 Botulism, severe form of food poisoning caused
by a neurotoxin produced be Clostridium
Botulinum
 Tetanus, highly fatal disease caused by the toxin
from Clostridium Tetani; the toxin attacks the CNS
muscle – spasm, convulsions.
 Nerve gas
 Heavy metal poisoning, arsenic, lead, mercury.
Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances
 Cerebrovascular accident (stroke)
 Transient ischemic attack (TIA)
 Alzheimer’s disease
End of Chapter 14
Copyright 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work
beyond that permitted in section 117 of the 1976 United
States Copyright Act without express permission of the
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programs or from the use of the information herein.

Ch14 Modified Brain

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Ch14 Modified Brain

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Principles of

 Supply nutrients and oxygen

The brain utilizes about 20% of the body’s

You must be connected to the Internet and in Slideshow Mode to

 respiratory rate,  coughing,

Basal ganglia are strongly interconnected with the

The basal ganglia are associated with a variety of

A functional grouping that

You must be connected to the Internet and in Slideshow Mode to

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