THEORIES AND

TREATMENT OF
ABNORMALITY
What is Theory?
• A set of ideas that provides a
framework for asking questions about
phenomenon and for gathering and
interpreting information about the
phenomenon.
Phineas Gage (1823-1860)
Case study: In a work accident, a
metal rod shot up through Phineas
Gage’s skull, destroying his eye and
part of his frontal lobes.
After healing, he was able to function
in many ways, but his personality
changed; he was rude, odd, irritable,
and unpredictable.
Possible explanation:
Damage to the frontal lobes could
result in loss of the ability to suppress
impulses and to modulate emotions.
BRAIN DYSFUNCTION
• People whose brains do not function
properly often show problems in
psychological functioning.
• The brain can be divided into three
main regions (Kalat 2007): the
hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain.
MAJOR STRUCTURES OF THE BRAIN
• Brain dysfunction can result from injury
such as from an automobile accident,
and from diseases that causes brain
deterioration.
• Certain areas of the brain are associated
with a wide range of psychological
symptoms. Thus, dysfunctions in these
areas are transdiagnostic risk factors.
BIOCHEMICAL IMBALANCES
• The brain requires a number of chemicals
in order to work efficiently and
effectively. These chemicals include
neurotransmitters and hormones.
NEUROTRANSMIT TERS
• Biochemical that act as messengers carrying
impulses from one neuron or nerve cells, to
another.
• Many biochemical theories of abnormality
suggest that the amount of certain
neurotransmitters in the synapses is associated
with specific types of psychopathology.
• Psychological symptoms may also be associated
with the number and functioning of the receptors
for neurotransmitters on the dendrite.
 Neurotransmitters
are chemicals used to
send a signal across
the synaptic gap.
R E U P TA K E
Recycling Neurotransmitters [NTs]

Reuptake:
After the neurotransmitters
stimulate the receptors on
the receiving neuron, the
chemicals are taken back up
into the sending neuron to
be used again.

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Roles of Different Neurotransmitters
Some Neurotransmitters and Their Functions
Neurotransmitter Function Problems Caused by Imbalances
Serotonin Affects mood, hunger, Undersupply linked to depression;
sleep, and arousal some antidepressant drugs raise
serotonin levels
Dopamine Influences movement, Oversupply linked to schizophrenia;
learning, attention, and undersupply linked to tremors and
emotion decreased mobility in Parkinson’s
disease and ADHD
Acetylcholine Enables muscle action, ACh-producing neurons deteriorate as
(ACh) learning, and memory Alzheimer’s disease progresses
Norepinephrine Helps control alertness Undersupply can depress mood and
and arousal cause ADHD-like attention problems
GABA (gamma- A major inhibitory Undersupply linked to seizures,
aminobutyric acid neurotransmitter tremors, and insomnia
Glutamate A major excitatory Oversupply can overstimulate the brain,
neurotransmitter; producing migraines or seizures; this is
involved in memory why some people avoid MSG
(monosodium glutamate) in food 12
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 The endocrine system
sends molecules as
messages, just like the
nervous system, but it
sends them through the
bloodstream instead of
across synapses.
 These molecules, called
hormones, are
produced in various
glands around the body.
 The messages go to the
brain and other tissues.

The endocrine system refers to a set of

glands that produce chemical
messengers called hormones. 13
 produce hormones such as
Adrenal Glands adrenaline/epinephrine,
noradrenaline/norepinephrine, and
cortisol.

Adrenal Glands
1. The sympathetic
“fight or flight”
nervous system
responds to stress
by sending a
message to
adrenal glands to
release the
hormones listed
Pancreas above.
2. Effect: increased
heart rate, blood
pressure, and
blood sugar. These
provide ENERGY
for the fight or
flight! 14
The Pituitary Gland
 The pituitary gland is the
“master gland” of the
endocrine system.
 It is controlled through
the nervous system by the
nearby brain area--the
hypothalamus.
Pituitary gland
 The pituitary gland
produces hormones that
regulate other glands
such as the thyroid.
 It also produces growth
hormone (especially
during sleep) and
oxytocin, the “bonding”
hormone.
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THE GENETIC ABNORMALITIES
• Behavior genetics, the study of the genetics of
personality and abnormality, is concerned
with two questions: (1) To what extent are
behaviors or behavioral tendencies inherited?
(2) What are the processes by which genes
affected behavior?

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 INTERACTION BETWEEN GENES
AND ENVIRONMENT
• Genetic factors can influence the kinds of
environments we choose, which then
reinforce our genetically influenced
personalities and interests.
• The environment may act as a catalyst for a
genetic tendency.
• The fascinating line of research called
epigenetics indicates that environmental
conditions can affect the expression of genes.
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What is Therapy?
• A therapy is a treatment, usually based
on a theory of a phenomenon, that
addresses those factors that theory says
cause the phenomenon.

18
DRUG THERAPIES
• Most of the biological treatments for
abnormality are drug treatments.
These drugs are thought to relieve
psychological symptoms by
improving the functioning of
neurotransmitters.

19
Drug Therapies for Mental Disorder
Type of Drug Purpose
Antipsychotic drugs Reduce symptoms of psychosis
(loss of reality testing,
hallucinations, delusions)
Antidepressant drugs Reduce symptoms of
depression (sadness, loss of
appetite, sleep disturbances)
Lithium Reduces symptoms of mania
(agitation, excitement,
grandiosity)
Antianxiety drugs Reduce symptoms of anxiety
(fearfulness, worry, tension)
Examples
Thorazine (Phenothiazine)
Haldol (Butyrophenone)
Clozaril (atypical
antipsychotic)
Parnate (MAO inhibitor)
Elavil (tricyclic)
Prozac (serotonin reuptake
inhibitor)
Lithobid
Cibalith-S
Nembutal (barbiturate)
Valium (benzodiazepine)
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ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY
• It is used to treat severe depression.
Various new methods are being
developed to stimulate the brain without
using electricity.

21
P SYC H O S U RG E RY
• Is used rarely, and only with people who
have severe disorders that do not
respond to other forms of treatment.

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CRITIC
• The biological therapies are not panacea. They do not work
for everyone.
• Most biological therapies have significant side effects.
• People will turn to the drugs rather than deal with issues in
their lives that are causing or contributing to their
psychological problems.
• Often ignore the role of environmental and psychological
processes in biological functioning.
• Individual who attribute their mental health problems to
biological causes are more pessimistic about their mental
health problems to non biological causes.

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B E H AV I O R A L A P P R O C A H E S
• Focus on the influence of reinforcement and
punishments in producing behavior. The two
core principles or processes of learning
according to behaviorism are classical
conditioning and operant conditioning.
Learning can also occur through modeling and
observational learning.
Classical Conditioning
• Classical takes place when a previously
neutral stimulus is paired with stimulus
that naturally creates a certain
responses; eventually, the neutral
stimulus also elicits the response.
Stimulus and Response
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Previously neutral stimulus
Stimulus that naturally
paired the unconditioned
produces a desired response
stimulus

Unconditioned Response (UR) Conditioned Response (CR)

Response that naturally Response occurring in the
occurring in the presence of presence of the conditioned
the unconditioned stimulus stimulus
• Classical conditioning has been used to explain
people’s seemingly irrational responses to a host
of neutral stimuli.
• For example, a college student who previously
failed in a test in a particular classroom may
break out in a cold sweat when she enters that
room again. This response is s result of classical
conditioning. The room has been come a
conditioned stimulus, eliciting a response of
anxiety, because it was paired with an
unconditioned stimulus (failing an exam) the elicit
anxiety.
Operant Conditioning
• Thorndike labeled the law of effect, led to the
development of the principles of operant
conditioning – the shaping of behaviors by
providing rewards for desired behaviors and
providing punishments for undesired
behaviors.
Modeling and Observational Learning
• Albert Bandura argued that people also learn
behaviors by watching other people, a view that
came to be known as social learning theory.
• Modeling – people learn new behaviors from
imitating the behaviors modeled by important
people in their lives, such as their parents.
• Observational Learning – takes place when a
person observes the rewards and punishments
that another person receives for his or her
behavior and then behaves in accordance with
those rewards and punishment.
B E H AV I O R A L T H E R A P I E S
• Behavioral therapies focus on identifying
those reinforcements and punishments that
contribute to a person’s maladaptive
behaviors and on changing specific behaviors.
• The foundation for behavioral therapy is the
behavioral assessment of the client’s problem.
Systematic Desensitization Therapy
• A gradual method for extinguishing anxiety
responses to stimuli and the maladaptive
behavior that often accompanies this anxiety.
COGNITIVE APPROACHES
• Cognitive theories argue that is not
simply rewards and punishments that
motivate human behavior. Instead, our
cognitions – thoughts or beliefs – shape
our behavior and the emotions we
experience.
Causal Attribution
• The attributions we make for events can
influence our behavior because they
impact the meaning we give to events
and our expectations for similar events in
the future.
COGNITIVE THERAPIES
• Cognitive therapies help clients identify and
challenge their negative thoughts and
dysfunctional belief system.
• Cognitive therapists also help clients to learn
more effective problem-solving techniques for
dealing with the concrete problems in their
lives.
• Cognitive therapy is designed to be short-
term, on the order of 12 to 20 weeks in
duration with one or two sessions per week.
Three Goals of CT
1. Assist clients in identifying their irrational and
maladaptive thoughts. A client might be asked
to keep a diary of thoughts she has whenever
she feels anxious.
2. Teach clients to challenge their irrational or
maladaptive thoughts and consider alternative
ways of thinking. A client might be asked to
evaluate the evidence for a belief or to consider
how other people might think about a difficult
situation.
3. Encourage clients to face their worst fears about
a situation and recognize ways they could cope.
PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES

• The psychodynamic theories of abnormality

suggest that all behaviors, thoughts, and
emotions, whether normal or abnormal, are
influenced to large extent by unconscious
processes.
• The psychodynamic theories of
psychopathology focus on unconscious
conflicts that cause anxiety in the individual
and result maladaptive behavior.
• Freud argued that these conflicts arise when
the impulses of the id clash with the
constraints on behavior imposed by the ego
and superego.
• People use various types of defense
mechanisms to handle a child’s transitions
through the psychosexual stages determines
the concerns or issues the child may become
fixated on.
• More recent psychodynamic theorists focus
less on the role of unconscious impulses and
more on the development of the individuals
self-concept in the concept of interpersonal
relationships. They see a greater role for the
environment in shaping personality and have
more hope for change during adulthood than
Freud had.
Psychoanalysis
• Theory of personality and psychopathology
• A method of investigating the mind
• A form of treatment of psychopathology
HUMANISTIC APPROACHES
• Suggest that all humans strive to fulfill their
potential for good and to self-actualize. The
inability to fulfill one’s potential from the
pressures of society to conform to others’
expectation and values.
• Humanistic therapies seek to help a client
realize his or her potential for self-
actualization.
FA M I LY S Y S T E M T H E O R I E S
• Suggest that the family as a complex
interpersonal system, with its own hierarchy
and rules that govern family members’
behavior.
• When a member of the family has a
psychological disorder, family systems
theorists see it not as a problem within the
individual but as an indication of a
dysfunctional family system.
S O C I O C U LT U R A L T H E O R I E S
• Suggests that socioeconomic stress,
discrimination, and social upheaval can lead to
mental health problems in individuals.
• Culture also have implicit and explicit rules
regarding the types of abnormal behavior they
permit.
• Some clients may wish to work with therapists of
the same culture or gender, but it is unclear
whether matching therapist and client in terms of
culture and gender is necessary for therapy to be
effective.
• It is important that therapists be sensitive to
the influences of culture and gender on
client’s attitudes toward therapy and various
solutions to problems.
PREVENTION PROGRAMS
• Prevention programs focus on preventing
disorders before they develop, retarding the
development of disorders in their early stages,
and reducing the impact of disorders on
people’s functioning.