Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

Chapter 24
The Chemistry of
Cooking
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

Learning Outcomes
You should be able to:

•List two
•State two methods
reasons for cooking; meat;
of tenderising
•Discuss
•Describethe effect
the of heat
effects of on Vitamin
boiling on C;
•Explain how a tenderiser works;
protein and starch;
•Discuss the effect of sodium hydrogencarbonate
•Explain
on foodsthe principleVitamin
containing involvedC.in the functioning of
•Identify
the thecooker;
pressure major constituents in flour;

•Describe
•Identify the reactions
Vitamin C as aninvolved in vitamin found
important
inbaking dough;
fruits and vegetables;
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

1. To improve the flavour and appearance of food;

2. To make food easier to digest and be absorbed by the

body;

3. To remove natural toxins present in raw food through

heat;

4. To destroy microorganisms in food that

causes decay and diseases;

5. To preserve food and extend its shelf life.

Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

• When food containing proteins is cooked,

their structure and properties are altered.

• Proteins are made up of long chains of amino acids.

• Naturally, these long chains of amino acids fold up to form

three-dimensional structures.

• Cooking causes denaturing of the proteins.

• Heat, together with chemicals, enzymes and varying pH breaks

the weak hydrogen bonds in the proteins. The proteins unfold
and their structures and properties are altered.
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

• Denaturation is the process which alters the natural state

of a protein caused by heat and chemicals such as acids
and bases.

• When protein is only lightly coagulated, it traps water

and forms a soft gel that is easy to digest.

• However, if more water is added and the temperature

continues to rise, the proteins become tough and
rubbery.

• This is clearly demonstrated when an egg is fried — it is

runny initially, becomes soft and gets harder and harder
as it cooks.
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

• Coagulation is the process where a liquid

changes into a semi-solid or solid mass due to
the clumping of protein strands.

• The process of coagulation is useful in making

tofu, cakes, soufflés and pie fillings.

• Other protein-containing products include meat,

chicken and fish.

• Proteins in meat are denatured when heated to a

temperature of 60°C or higher, unlike for eggs.
E.g. Steak becomes tender on cooking over
quick dry heat.
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

• Starch is a polysaccharide.
• Starch is made up of many
glucose molecules linked
together.
• Starch is insoluble in water.
• Examples of food
containing starch are rice,
maize, wheat, cassava,
potatoes, bread, cereals and
pasta.
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

• When starch grains are placed in cold water and the water is put to boil, the starch
grains begin to absorb water.
• Swelling in the starch grains increase but this is a reversible process when the
temperature of the water reaches between 60°C to 70°C.
• The process becomes irreversible at higher temperatures.
• At high temperatures, gelatinisation occurs when the starch becomes gelatinous and
very viscous.
• The process of gelatinisation can be seen when cooking rice or when using cornstarch
as a thickening agent in cooking.

Gelatinisation of
starch during
cooking
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

Besides starch, flour also contains

protein which when mixed with
Flour contains a high water or moisture, forms gluten.
proportion of starch.

Flour is a powder made

from cereal grains such
Wheat flour is most widely as maize and wheat.
used to make bread.
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

The endosperm The bran contains lots of

contains the most starch fibre and small amounts
within the wheat grain. of proteins, fats and
vitamins.

The germ is the embryo within the kernel

that contains high concentrations of proteins
and essential nutrients such as vitamin E,
folic acid, thiamin, minerals and fatty acids.
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

Baking involves 3 steps: 1. Kneading

1. kneading, Dough is made by mixing flour
and water. On kneading, the main
2. fermentation and proteins in the flour, glutenin and
proofing, and gliadin form an elastic network of
strands known as gluten.
3. baking The dough must be kneaded
carefully to ensure even
distribution of carbon dioxide
produced during the fermentation
process.
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

2. Fermentation and proofing

Leavening agents such as yeast are
Baking involves 3 steps: added to the dough to produce bubbles
of carbon dioxide gas that makes the
1. kneading,
bread lighter and puffier.
2. fermentation and The yeast feeds on the sugar and
proofing, and converts it into glucose:

3. baking
The glucose is then broken down by
another enzyme in the yeast to
produce ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

2. Fermentation and proofing

Baking involves 3 steps: Carbon dioxide produced by

fermentation is usually trapped in the
1. kneading, dough as bubbles. The dough is then
left in a warm place for a few more
2. fermentation and hours to allow the yeast to produce
proofing, and more carbon dioxide. This process is
known as proofing.
3. baking
Bacteria found in yeast and dough react
with ethanol to produce lactic acid and
acetic acid that contributes to the
flavour of the bread.

Unrisen dough Risen dough

Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

Other leavening agents

Baking involves 3 steps:
Besides yeast, chemical leavening
1. kneading, agents such as baking powder and
baking soda can be used as well.
2. fermentation and Baking powder is a dry powder made
proofing, and of baking soda, anhydrous acid salts
and starch. When it is mixed with
3. baking water, the acidic solution formed
reacts with sodium hydrogencarbonate
(baking soda) in a neutralisation
reaction to produce carbon dioxide.
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

Other leavening agents

Baking involves 3 steps:
Baking soda on the other hand, does
1. kneading, not produce carbon dioxide in water.
However, it will react with acid to give
2. fermentation and effervescence.
proofing, and Baking powder is used sometimes
instead of yeast for dough which has
3. baking low gluten content and thus lacks the
elastic structure to retain carbon
dioxide as well. It is also used when
the fermentation flavours produced by
the yeast is not favourable. Baking
powder is commonly used to bake
muffins, sweet bread, cookies, etc.
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

3. Baking
After the dough has risen, it is placed in
Baking involves 3 steps: the oven for baking. At first, as the
temperature in the oven rises, yeast
1. kneading, activity increases.
2. fermentation and However, once the temperature increases
proofing, and past 50 oC, yeast cells die and
fermentation stops. The gluten present in
3. baking the dough also denatures and hardens. At
the same time, water changes to water
vapour, and assists in aerating and
expanding the dough. At higher
temperatures, starch on the surface breaks
down to give it a golden crust and the
sugar in the bread caramelises and adds
flavour to it.
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

Ingredient Description
Flour This provides the bulk of the baked item. For baking
bread, wheat flour, which is high in gluten, is usually used.
Gluten (protein) is the substance that gives bread its fine texture
and supports the rest of the ingredients during rising.
Yeast Yeast is a fungi that feeds on starch and sugars, releasing CO2,
alcohol and sugar. The CO2 bubbles give the dough a light,
airy texture.
Fat Fat gives a softer texture and helps prevent the CO2 bubbles
from escaping from the mixture too soon.
Sugar Sugar provides a direct food source for the yeast, improving its
action.
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

Ingredients Description
Baking soda Releases CO2 according to the equation:
2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
However, as this also produces a strong base, Na2CO3, which
has to be neutralised, baking powder is usually used instead.
Baking Baking powder is baking soda with acid added. This neutralises
powder the base and produces more CO2 according to the following
equation:
NaHCO3 + H+  Na+ + H2O + CO2
Egg Beaten egg white, like fat, helps to retain gas bubbles, while
egg alone acts as a binder.
Salt Salt adds flavour, and strengthens soft fat and sugar mixtures.
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

There are several methods of cooking to ensure or preserve the

tenderness of meat. These cooking methods include:

Hanging: This method allows Mechanical action: This method involves

the muscle fibres in meat to
loosen as the meat is hung to
age.
beating the meat with a mallet to loosen the
muscle fibres. Beside beating, meat can also
be tenderised by grinding and cubing them as
these methods cause the connective tissues in
the meat to break up.

Cooking: This method makes

meat more tender and palatable.
Some meats that remain tough
even after prolonged normal
cooking may be tenderised by
cooking them in a pressure
cooker.
Use of chemicals: Protein-cleaving enzymes
break down tough fibres by hydrolysing amide
linkages of protein in meat (enzymatic action).
Meat can be marinated with acids to denature
proteins (use of acids).
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

• In a pressure cooker, food

is cooked by the high
temperatures inside the
cooker which is made
possible by raising the
pressure to a point greater
than atmospheric pressure.

• Cooking times are

therefore shortened
drastically.
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

• Pressure cookers create a closed environment

that literally forces steam through food using
heat transfer.

• When the tightly sealed cooker is set over high

heat, steam pressure builds and the internal
temperature rises because the boiling point of
water increases with the pressure.

• Under high pressure, the fibre in food is

tenderised and flavors mingle quickly.

• Fewer nutrients are lost because cooking is so

speedy and nutrient-rich steam condenses in the
pot instead of being lost in the air.
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

• Meat is made of proteins which are polymers of amino acids. Amino

acids are molecules that have an acid group on one end and an amine
group on the other.
• Proteolytic enzymes (e.g. papain in pawpaw, bromelin in pineapple)
can soften the meat by catalysing the hydrolysis of the amide linkages
of a protein thus breaking it down into smaller units.

• Apart from meat tenderisers, acids such as vinegar (acetic acid),

buttermilk (lactic acid) or fruit juice (citric acid), can be used to
marinate and tenderise the meat. At low pH, proteins in meat are
denatured, and collagen and tough muscle fibres are broken down.
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

• Fruits and vegetables are good sources of vitamins.

• Vitamin C is ascorbic acid (C6H8O6), a water soluble

vitamin that is required daily since it is not synthesised by
humans and cannot be stored by the body.

• Vitamin C is important as it is required for cellular

respiration, for enzyme function and as a component in
collagen formation.

• Vitamin C is used to increase iron absorption within the

body.

Vitamin C
(C6H8O6)
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

Some of the functions of vitamin C are as follows:

•Maintaining healthy gums, teeth and skin;

•Acting as an antioxidant to fight signs of aging;

•Building the body’s immunity against viruses;

•Increasing iron absorption in the body;

•Healing wounds;

•Synthesising collagen;

•Producing red blood cells.

Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

Vitamin C is highly unstable and sensitive to heat, oxygen,

pH, light and traces of copper. It is easily destroyed during
cooking, preparation and storage methods.

Oxidation of Vitamin C takes place rapidly when food is

cooked at high temperatures. The longer the food is cooked,
the more the vitamins are lost.

Vitamin C is also a water soluble vitamin. Thus, it leaches

into the cooking water and will be lost if poured away.
Chapter 24: The Chemistry of Cooking

Sodium hydrogencarbonate is sometimes added to fruits and vegetables

to remove pesticides or preserve the green colour. However, as it is
amphoteric, it reacts with Vitamin C in a neutralisation reaction to form
salt and water.
The equation for the neutralisation reaction is as follows:
C6H8O6(aq) + NaHCO3(aq) → C6H7O6Na(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
The ionic equation is therefore:
C6H8O6(aq) + HCO3-(aq) → C6H7O6-(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)