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Module V
Data
Data can be defined as the quantitative or qualitative values of a variable.
Data is thought to be the basic unit of information from which other analysis
can be done.
Data in itself cannot be understood and to get information from the data,
one must interpret it into meaningful information.
Data sources are broadly classified into primary and secondary data.
Quantitative and Qualitative Data
Quantitative Qualitative
Advantages Disadvantages
When we use statistical method with primary data from another purpose
for our purpose we refer to it as secondary data. It means that one
purpose's primary data is another purpose's secondary data. So that
secondary data is data that is being reused. Such data are more quickly
obtainable than the primary data.
Sources of Secondary Data
Published printed source
Books
Journals/periodicals
Magazines/Newspapers
Published Electronic Sources
e-journals
General websites
Weblogs
Unpublished Personal Records
Diaries
Letters
Government Records
Census Data/population statistics:
Health records
Educational institutes records
Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary
Data
Advantages Disadvantages
Inexpensive. Incomplete information.
Easily accessible.
Genuineness.
Immediately available.
Will provide essential background Sometimes expensive to obtain.
and help to clarify or refine
research problem – essential for
literature review.
Secondary data sources will
provide research method
alternatives.
Will also alert the researcher to
any potential difficulties.
Characteristics of Good Data
Advantages Disadvantages
Practical Is argued to be inadequate to understand some
Large amounts of information can be collected forms of information - i.e. changes of emotions,
behaviour, feelings etc.
from a large number of people in a relatively
cost effective way There is no way to tell how truthful a
respondent is being
Can be carried out by the researcher or by any
number of people with limited affect to its There is no way of telling how much thought a
respondent has put in
validity and reliability
The results of the questionnaires can usually be The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking
within the full context of the situation
quickly and easily quantified by either a
researcher or through the use of a software People may read differently into each question
and therefore reply based on their own
package interpretation of the question - i.e. what is
Can be analysed more 'scientifically' and 'good' to someone may be 'poor' to someone
objectively than other forms of research else, therefore there is a level of subjectivity
When data has been quantified, it can be used that is not acknowledged
to compare and contrast other research and There is a level of researcher imposition,
may be used to measure change meaning that when developing the
questionnaire, the researcher is making their
Positivists believe that quantitative data can be own decisions and assumptions as to what is
used to create new theories and / or test and is not important...therefore they may be
existing hypotheses missing something that is of importance
Interviewing
Interviewing involves asking respondents a series of open
ended questions.
Interviews can generate both standardized quantifiable data,
and more in-depth qualitative data.
However, the complexities of people and the complexities of
communication can create many opportunities for
miscommunication and misinterpretation.
Types of Interview
Interviews can range from
formal to informal
structured to unstructured
There are many experiments that can only be carried out in the messy
uncontrolled environments of the real-world, so the search for cause and
effect will require tradeoffs between real-world contexts and a controlled
environment.
Unobtrusive Measure
personal records
the media
the arts
social artefacts
Focus Groups
Focus groups are a data collection method. Data is collected
through a semi-structured group interview process.