RESISTANCE TO FLUID FLOW

Fluid deformation

• “a fluid, such as water or air, deforms

continuously when acted on by shearing
stresses of any magnitude.”
- Munson, Young, Okiishi

Shear Stress t

Solid Fluid
RESISTANCE of ADJOINING LAYER = VISCOSITY

The fluids like water or oil, flow on the surface in the form of layers
with the top layer moving at the fastest speed and the bottom layer
moving at slowest speed.

Why the speed of the flow of fluid reduces.

Because there is RESISTANCE to the flow of the fluid, which is

cause by FRICTION of the adjoining layers.
This property of the fluids is called as viscosity.

Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow

and may be thought of as a measure of fluid friction.
Fluid Deformation between Parallel Plates
 Fluid Deformation between Parallel Plates
the velocity of the upper layer of the fluid is faster than the velocity of the lower layers of the fluid.

F U
b

Side view
Force F causes the top plate to have velocity U.
What other parameters control how much force is
required to get a desired velocity?
Distance between plates (b)
Area of plates (A)
Viscosity!
 Shear Stress
F U
b

AU  N s
F Fb  m 2 
b 
AU
F
t Tangential stress N
A  m 2 

U
t  U
b 1 
Rate of deformation  s 
b
du du
t  rate of shear
dy dy change in velocity with
repect to distance
 Shear Stress
F U
b

AU
F
b  N s
Absolute Viscosity  m 2 

Shear stess
F (dyne/cm2 ) Dyne-s/cm2=P (poise)
Fb
  A Dyne-s/cm2=g-s/cm=P=103 cP
AU U Shear strain rate
b
(s-1)

1
 N s kg.m.s -2s kg.s 1000g.s
   2   Pa.s     10g.s.cm 1  10 P
m 
2
m m 100cm

Pa.s  10 P  1000cP  1000mPa.S

 Shear Stress
F U
b

AU
F Kinematic Viscosity
b

 absolute viscosity
 
 density
 kg 
N    kg 2 m   N  s  kg.m s kg 
 m  s 
 m 2 s 1
 s   2  2 . 2   kg 
m  s m m.s  m 3 

 dyne  s/cm 2 cm2

    Stoke
 dyne - s 2 /cm 4 s
 Viscosity of water

Water at 20 °C has a viscosity of 1.0020 cP (centipoise)

Dynamic viscosity

1 P = 0.1 Pa·s,
1 cP = 1 mPa·s = 0.001 Pa·s.

Kinematic viscosity

1 St = 1 cm2·s−1 = 10−4 m2·s−1.

1 cSt = 1 mm2·s−1 = 10−6m2·s−1.
 FLUID CLASSIFICATION BASED ON VISCOSITY

1) Ideal Fluid
The fluid which is incompressible and has no viscosity is known as the ideal fluid.
However, the ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid, because all the fluids have
viscosity and there is no fluid that doesn’t have viscosity (see the fig below)

2) Real fluid:
In practice all the fluids are real fluids because all of them have viscosity,
small or high.
For the real fluids which are liquids the viscosity reduces as the
temperature increases and for the gases, the viscosity increases as the
temperature increases.
3) Newtonian fluid:
Is a real fluid that obeys Newton’s law of viscosity : the shear stress between
various layers of the fluid is proportional to the rate of shear strain or the
velocity gradient. Fluids, such as water and most gases which have a constant
viscosity.

4) Non-Newtonian fluid:
Is a real fluids that do not obey the Newton’s law of viscosity.
In such fluids the shear stress between the various layers of fluid is not
proportional to the rate of shear strain or the velocity gradient.

5) Ideal plastic fluid:

The fluid in which the shear stress is more than the yield value and shear stress
is proportional to the rate of shear strain or velocity gradient is known as ideal
plastic fluid.
Fluid classification by response to shear stress

a fluid whose stress

versus strain rate
ssds
curve is linear and
passes through the
origin

Newtonian fluid
 Non- Newtonian Fluids:

•Bingham plastic fluids –

The viscosity curve does not go through the origin.
It behaves as a solid at low stresses but
It flows as a viscous fluid at high stresses.

at a small shear rate (beginning of move), the shear stress can be substantial
But once the fluid is moving, the shear stress is directly proportional to shear
rate in exactly the same manner as for Newtonian fluids.

Fluid behave in this manner are :

Water suspensions of rock particles
More familiarly,, a suspension of potatoes in a liquid,
flow in the bowl when you stir, flow harder when you stir harder,
and assume a mountain peak shape if undisturbed.
 Non- Newtonian Fluids:

•Pseudoplastic fluids (soo doe plastic)

Shear thinning:
The viscosity of this pseudoplastic fluids decreases with increased shearing.
Shear thinning liquids are very commonly, but misleadingly, described as
thixotropic.

Molten polymers have this characteristic, which is used to advantage in

injection molding when the material flows through small cross section
gates. Paper pulp suspensions also display pseudoplastic viscosity behavior.

Shear thickening:
viscosity increases with the rate of shear.
 Shear Time Dependent Fluids

for these fluids, the shear stress changes with time of shearing.

•Thixotropic Fluids
the viscosity decreases at higher shearing rates and become less viscous
over time when shaken, agitated, or otherwise stressed.
Mayonnaise has this characteristic. its viscosity decreases with higher rates of shearing, but only
after a minimum amount of shear is reached. This behavior is related to breaking bonds between
particles or molecules or to changes from the at-rest shape to moving shape of long molecules

Rheopectic:
materials which become more viscous over time when shaken, agitated, or otherwise stressed.

A magnetorheological fluid
is a type of "smart fluid" which, when subjected to a magnetic field,
greatly increases its apparent viscosity, to the point of becoming a
viscoelastic solid.
 Effect of Temperature on Liquid and Gas Fluids

1) Liquids: As the temperature of the liquid fluid increases its

viscosity decreases.

In the liquids the cohesive forces between the molecules

predominates the molecular momentum transfer between the
molecules, mainly because the molecules are closely packed
(liquids have lesser volume than gases. The cohesive forces are maximum in
solids so the molecules are even more closely packed in them)
When the liquid is heated the cohesive forces between the
molecules reduce thus the forces of attraction between
molecules reduce, which eventually reduces the viscosity of
the liquids.
 For liquids: µ = µo/ (1 + αt + βt2)

Where:
µ - Viscosity of the liquid at t degree Celsius n poise
µo – Viscosity of the fluid at 0o Celsius in poise
α, β – are the constants
The absolute, or dynamic viscosity of water depends
on the temperature

Temperature Dynamic Viscosity Kinematic Viscosity

-t- -µ- -ν-
(oC) (N s/m2) x 103 (m2/s) x 10-6

0 1.787 1.787
5 1.519 1.519
10 1.307 1.307
20 1.002 1.004
30 0.798 0.801
40 0.653 0.658
50 0.547 0.553
60 0.467 0.475
70 0.404 0.413
80 0.355 0.365
90 0.315 0.326
100 0.282 0.29
Effect of Temperature on Liquid and Gas Fluids

 Fundamental mechanisms
 Liquids - cohesion and momentum transfer
 Viscosity decreases as temperature increases.
 Relatively independent of pressure
(incompressible)

 Gases - transfer of molecular momentum

increases
 Viscosity __________ as temperature increases.


increases as pressure increases.
Viscosity __________
 Effect temp on Gases:

For gases: µ = µo + αt + βt2

In gases there is opposite phenomenon. The viscosity of the

gases increases as the temperature of the gas increases. The
reason behind this is again the movement of the molecules and
the forces between them.
In the gases the cohesive forces between the molecules is lesser,
while molecular momentum transfer is high. As the temperature
of the gas is increased the molecular momentum transfer rate
increases further which increases the viscosity of the gas.
How to calculate it
Pipe line
 Go to
basic flow equation derivation
(bernoulli equation)
 FRICTION LOSSES OF FLUID FLOW
From Bernoulli eq.

P V2  dWother  dQ 
(  gz  )    u  
 2 dm  dm 
Friction

P V2  dWo
(  gz  )  F
 2 dm

Constant Diameter No work

Horizontal pipe

Pressure Drop
P
FRICTION F
LOSSES 
 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW

• At low velocities, fluid flow is smooth with the fluid particles moving in
straight lines along the direction of flow (LAMINER).

• The majority of flows in practice are TURBULENT with no uniform

motion at the local level but an average velocity in the direction of flow.
A typical velocity profile across a pipe

dV
t 
dr
FRICTION LOSSES IN LAMINAR FLOW

 P  128
F  Q.x. (Poiseuille Eq.)
  D04

This FRICTION LOSSES can be derived analytically.

 DERIVATION FRICTION LOSSES
IN STEADY LAMINAR FLOW
2 Pressure force
H.Newton shear force  2rx(t ) πr 2(P2 )
F=0 t
1
Pressure force F U

πr 2(P1 ) A b
x
r
dV
t 
dr
Pressure force  shear force
dV
πr (P1-P2 )  2πrΔx(
2
) Applicable in
dr LAMINAR FLOW
r P1-P2
dV   dr
by integratio n 2 x
r02  r 2 P1  P2
V
4 x
 DERIVATION FRICTION LOSSES
IN STEADY LAMINAR FLOW
r02  r 2 P1  P2
r=r0 V
4 x
r=0
V=0 r02 P1  P2
Velocity distribution
Vmax 
r  r P1  P2
2 2 4 x
Q   VdA Q 2rdr
0

tube
4 x
r  r0
P1  P2   r02 r 2 r 
4

Q    Dari Neraca Energi

x 2  2 4 
r 0
P  P  r0
4
P
Q 1 2 F
x  8 
P P  0
4
D
Q 1 2
x  128  P  128
F  Q.x.
  D04
128
P1  P2  Q.x.
D04 (Poiseuille Eq.)
Dari H.Newton
 APPLICATON OF LAMINER FLOW EQUATION.
SIMPLE VISCOMETER :A CALIBRATED HOLE IN THE BOTTOM
( P1  P2 )Do4

1 128Qx (Poiseuille Eq.)

g (z )Do4
V


128Qx

g (z )Do4
 t
z x 128Vx

 k t  

2 k t cP = fluid density X cSt

 Viscosity Measurement

P V2  dWo
1 (  gz  )  F
 2 dm
0.02m

z V22
g ( z2  z1 )   F
2
0.1m x D=1mm V2 diabaikan untuk laminer
=1050kg/m3
g ( z2  z1 )   F
 128
2 g ( z2  z1 )  Q.x.
  D04
 P  128
F  Q.x. g (z )Do4
  D04 
128Qx
H.Newton
 g (z ) Do4
 waktu
128.Vol.x
Ostwald viscometers measure the viscosity of a
fluid with a known density.
 GLASS CAPILLARY VISCOMETERS
ASTM D445

P= Pressure difference across capiller

 Pr t
4
R= Radius of capiller
 L = Length od capiller
8LV V =
 =
Volume fluida
Viscosity
 P V2
 dWo
(  gz  )  F
 2 dm
 FRICTION LOSSES IN LAMINAR FLOW

 P  128
F  Q.x. (Poiseuille Eq.)
  D04

For Laminar flow, the FRICTION LOSSES is proposional to Q

Is it true for turbulent flow ? The answer is No

 FRICTION LOSSES FOR TURBULENT FLOW
x.V 2 x. V 2
F 2f 4f (empirical equation)
D D 2
Viscous energy
1 F
Friction factor f 
(FANNING) 4  x V 2 
  Inertia energy
D 2 

F
Friction factor x. V 2 f 
(MOODY ) F f  x V 2 
 
D 2 D 2 
FRICTION LOSSES IN TURBULEN
FLOW EXPERIMENT
FRICTION LOSSES (PRESSURE DROP)
EXPERIMENT by REYNOLD

P1 P2

Q
x

TURBULLEN
TRANSISI P1 - P2
LAMINER

 Q1.8 to 2.0
x
P1 - P2
x
P1 - P2
 Q1
x

Q
 FOR TURBULENT FLOW

dV
Turbulen t m
dy
F (friction loses) is higher than that is m
predicted by Poiseulle equation

 P  128
F  Q.x.
  D04

x.V 2
F (Reynold experiment )
D
 Turbulent flow

When fluid flow at higher flowrates,

the streamlines are not steady and straight
generally, the flow field will vary in both space and time with
fluctuations that comprise "turbulence
there is no simple solution
P = P (D, , , L, U,)
 Fanning FRICTION FACTOR CHART

1 D
1 D 
 4.0 * log  2.28  4.0 * log4.67
D/ 
1  4.0 * log  2.28
f   Re f  f 





f =16/Re
 FRICTION FACTOR CHART (FANNING)

f varies linearly with Re

Blasius and Stanton plot
16
f  Turbulen
f Re P D 0.25
f   0.079 Re
F
 P
 Q.x.
 128 x 2 V 2
  D 4

laminer Smooth pipe

DV
Re 

 Reynold number

VD V inertia
Re   
  / D Viscous forces

The higher the Re, the more the turbulency

 dimensionless group /D

Additional dimensionless group /D need

to be characterize the pipe wall surface
Roughness

Thus more than one curve on f vs Re plot

 Surface Roughness of the Pipe Material

Pipe material e (m)

Riveted steel (90 to 9) × 10-4
Concrete (30 to 3)×10-4
Wood stave (20 to 2)×10-4
Cast iron 2.5×10-4
Galvanized iron 1.5×10-4
Asphalted cast iron 1.2×10-4
Commercial steel 0.5×10-4
Wrought iron

Drawn tubing 0.15×10-4

FANNING FRICTION FACTOR LAMINER REGION
Viscous energy
F
f  For laminer ?
 x V 2 
4  Inertia energy
D 2   P  128
F  Q.x.
  D 4

F F
1 1
V 1 1 x V 2

128. 2 .x 16
DV
.4
D  4 D 2

F 16 16
 
 x V 2  DV Re
4 
 D 2  
F 16
f   f varies linearly with Re
 x V 2  Re
4 
 D 2 
Moody Chart

DV
Re 

MOODY FRICTION FACTOR FOR LAMINER REGION
F
f  f Untuk Aliran laminer ?
 x V 2 
 
D 2   P  128
F  Q.x.
  D 4
(Poiseuille Eq.)

F F
1 1
V 1 1 x V 2

128. 2 .x 16
DV
.4
D  4 D 2

F 16 16
 
 x V 2  DV Re
4 
 D 2  

F 16 64
f   X 4 
 x V 2  Re Re
 
 D 2 
Friction Factor for Smooth, Transition,
and Rough Turbulent flow
P D
f 
x 2 V 2

Smooth pipe, Re>3000

1
f

 4.0 * log Re* 
f  0.4

f  0.079Re 0.25

 1 D
 4.0 * log  2.28
Rough pipe, [ (D/)/(Re√ƒ) <0.01]  f 

Transition function
1 D  D/ 
for both smooth and  4.0 * log  2.28  4.0 * log4.67 1
rough pipe f    Re f 
 Fricton losses calculaion
example
2 reservoir are connected by 2000 ft of 3-in schedule
number 40 pipe (actual ID is 3.068 in. We wish to
pump 200 gal/min of water from one to other. The
level of th reservoir are the same, both are open to
the atmosphere.

What are :
a).the pump work per mass
b).the required pump power
c).the required pump pressure rise
PIPE’S SCHEDULE NUMBER ?
AMERICAN
STANDARD PIPE DIAMETER
PIPE’S CROSS SECTIONAL DIAGRAM
3 diff wall thicness of Pipe
THE SAME IN OD, DIFFERENT IN ID
 PROBLEM ANALYSIS :
Make the flow system diagram with all the name of the points where the Bernoulli
equation will be applied
1 2

2000 ft
#40 pipe (D=3.068)
pump dW pump
What are :
a).the pump work per mass dm
b).the required pump power
dW pump
c).the required pump pressure rise Power 
dt

P  Pdischarg e  Psuction  PD  PS

Put letter S (suction) dan D (discharge) on the diagram

 PROBLEM ANALYSYS
What are the pump work per mass
1 2

2000 ft
S #40 pipe (D=3.068)
P V2  dWo
Application of Bernuoli to point 1 to point 2 (  gz  )  F
 2 dm

P2  P1 V22  V12  dWpump

(  gz  ) F
 2 dm

dWa ,o
0 F
dm
PROBLEM ANALYSYS
1 2

2000 ft
S #40 pipe (D=3.068)

x V 2
dWa ,o F 4f
0 F D 2
dm

dWa ,o x V 2
 4 f
dm D 2


f  (Re, ) Use f Re chart
D
 PROBLEM ANALYSYS
1 2

2000 ft
S #40 pipe (D=3.068)

the required pump power

dW pump
Power 
dt
dW pump dm dW pump .
Power   m
dm dt dm
 PROBLEM ANALYSYS
What are the pump pressure rise
1 2

2000 ft
S #40 pipe (D=3.068)
P V2  dWo
Application of Bernuoli to point S to point D (  gz  )  F
 2 dm

PD  PS VD2  VS2  dWpump

(  gz  ) F
 2 dm

PD  PS  dWpump
( )  dWpump
 dm PD  PS  
dm
 another type of
friction losses calculaion
 3 TYPICAL PROBLEM IN FRICTION
CALCULATION
Parameter berhubungan dengan f
•Kecepatan rata-rata
•Densitas fluida
•Viskositas fluida
•Diameter pipa
•Kekasaran pipa
•Kehilangan friksi (F)
----------------------------------------------
Tipe Diketahui Dicari
Langsung ---------------------------------------------
dapat 1 D,, , , Q F
dicari 2 , , , Q,F D
3 D,, , , F Q
---------------------------------------------

Trial error
MORE CONVINIENT METHOD
 P  4f V2
 F
x x D 2

Viscosity

P
x
CHART FOR AIR CONDITION ENGINEER

P
x

Friction of air in a straight duct for volumetric rate

10-2000ft3/min, base on =0.075lb/ft3, clean round, galvanized metal duct,
having 40 joints per 100 ft.
 COMPUTER METHOD
16
f 
Laminer Re
1   D 1.255  (Colebrook)
 4 log   
Turbulen  3.7 R f 
f  

f harus dicari dengan cara trial error

Wood approximation
f  a  bR c

   
0.225

a  0.0235   0.135 
D D
 
0.44

b  22 
D
 
0.134

c  1.62 
D

Problem type 1 & 2 dapat langsung diselesaikan

Problem type 3 trial error
 FRICTION LOSSES IN
THE PIPES’S FITTINGS
 FITTINGS
(Elbows, Tees, Valves)
PIPES AND FITTINGS
VARIETIES OF VALVE

BALL VALVE

Gate VALVE

ONE WAY VALVE

Butterfly Valves
Globe Valves
 FITTING LOSSES
Equivalent
•VALVES ELBOWS Leq Length of pipe
that give
amount of
loses equal to
the fitting

x V 2 Leq V 2
Fpipe  4 f Ffitting  4 f
D 2 D 2

F fitting Le
 k
Fpipe D
 Energy Loss in Valves
 Function of valve type and valve position
 The complex flow path through valves can
result in high head loss (of course, one of
the purposes of a valve is to create head
loss when it is not fully open)
 Ev are the loss in terms of velocity heads

p V2 Leq V 2
Fv   Kv 2f
 2g D g
 FITTING LOSSES
-----------------------------------------------------
Type of fitting k=Leq/D
Eqivalent length
(dimensionless)
-----------------------------------------------------
Globe valve, wide open 340
Angle valve, wide open 145
Gate valve, wide open 13
Check valve (swing type) 135
90o standard elbow 30
45o standard elbow 16
90o long radius elbow 20
-----------------------------------------------------
Friction Loss Factors for valves
p V2 Leq V 2
Fv   Kv 2f
 2g D g
Valve Kv Leq/D
Gate valve, wide open 0.15 7

Gate valve, 3/4 open 0.85 40

Gate valve, 1/2 open 4.4 200

Gate valve, 1/4 open 20 900

Globe valve, wide open 7.5 350

ENLARGEMENT & CONTRACTION

2
P
KV
 F
 2

Sudden enlargement
1 D1 D2

2
Sudden contractions  D12 
0.5 K  1  2 
 D2 

D2 D1

D1/D2
Energy Loss due to Gradual Expansion

A1
A2
 0.8
0.7
V1  V2  0.6
2
0.5
EE  K E KE 0.4
2 0.3
0.2
0.1
V22
EE  K E    1
2
0
2 0 20 40 60 80
A2 angle ()

A1
 FRICTION LOSSES OF NON CIRCULAR PIPE

P x V 2
  F  4 f
 D 2 D diganti
4 X hydrolic radius

cross sectional area of flow

HR 
wetted perimeter

r 2 r D
HR   
2r 2 4 circular
PROBLEM FRIKSI YANG MELIBATKAN PENGUNAAN
BERNOULLI

P2  P1 V22
  F
 2

entrance Straight pipe

V2 x V 2
FK 4f
2 D 2
 Pipe Flow Head Loss
(constant density fluid flows)

•proportional to the length of the pipe

•proportional to the square of the velocity (high
Reynolds number)
•Proportional inversely with the diameter of the pipe
•increasing with surface roughness
•independent of pressure
•Total losses in the pipe system is obtained by
summing individual head losses of pipes, fittings,
valves etc
 Pipe Flow Summary
 The statement of conservation of mass, and energy becomes the Bernoulli
equation for steady state constant density of flows.

 Laminar flow losses and velocity distributions can be derived based on momentum
and mass conservation to obtain exact solution named of Hagen – Poisuille

 Turbulent flow losses and velocity distributions require experimental results.

 Experiments give the relationship between the friction factor and the Reynolds
number.

 Head loss becomes minor when fluid flows at high flow rate (friction factor is
constant at high Reynolds numbers).
Fricton losses calculaion
 3-in pipe 627 ft
6 elbow Vessel 2
4 gates valves

Vessel 1
Bypass valve We are ordering the pump
What values should e specify
V =?
Z=0 P
Pump head ?
Pump g
Specific gravity 0.8-8.85 P V2  dWo
Viscosity 2-5 cSt (  gz  )  F
 2 dm
Flow rate 150-200 gal/min

Vessel 1 Vessel 2
Pmax 20 psig 81 psig
Pmin 8 psig 47 psig
Max level 43 ft 127 ft
Min level 21 ft 100 ft
 Pd P V2  dWo
Ps (  gz  )  F
 2 dm

Pump
P Pd  Ps  dWo 1
 )
g g dm g

P V2  dWo
(  gz  )  F
 2 dm
Bypass valve
x V 2 
F 4f f  (Re, )
D 2 D
Leq
Pump
 k (dlm tabel)
D
Q
V
2
KV
F A
2
Flow max
P Max Agar sistim dapat beroperasi
Level Max
 ECONOMIC PIPE DIAMETER

Total annual cost of the line

1. Power to run the pump
2. Maintenance charges on pump and line
3. Capital-cost charges

Total
Capital cost
Cost

Power
Maintenance

Pipe diameter
Fricton losses calculation