food, breaks it down into nutrient molecule, absorbs these molecules into the blood stream, and then rids the body of the indigestible remains P.850 Two main groups : Alimentary canal or GI tract – mouth, pharynx, esophagous, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine P.851 Accessory digestive organs – teeth, tongue, and salivary glands; liver, pancreas, and gall bladder Digestive processes – six activities 1. Ingestion – 2. Propulsion – main one peristalsis 3. Mechanical digestion – chewing, Churning, and segmentation P.852 4. Chemical digestion – breaks the chemical bonds by enzymes; begins in the mouth and is essentially complete in the small intestine 5. Absorption – the small intestine is the major absorptive site 6. Defecation - Peritoneum – visceral and parietal; in between is peritoneal cavity containing serous fluid Mesentery – a double layer of peritoneum, two serous membranes fused back to back Provide routes for blood vessels, lymphatics, nerves, holds organs in place, and store fat P.853 Retroperitoneal organs – Intraperitoneal or peritoneal organs – Peritonitis – P.854 Splanchnic circulation – Walls of the alimentary canal have four tunics – mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa The Mucosa P.855 Mucosa or mucous membrane – the innermost layer, made of epithelial tissue Functions – (1) secretion of mucus, digestive enzymes, and hormones (2) absorption of the end products of digestion into the blood (3) protection against infectious disease Digestive mucosa have three sublayers: (1) a lining epithelium – simple columner epithelium (2) lamina propria – loose areolar connective tissue (3) muscularis mucosae – a scant layer of smooth muscle cells that produces local movements of the mucosa Submucosa – external to the mucosa, dense connective tissue containing blood and lymphatic vessels, lymphoid follicles, and nerve fibers Muscularis externa or muscularis – inner circular layer and longitudinal layer of smooth muscle cells Serosa – outermost layer, made of areolar connective tissue Enteric nervous system – sympathetic and parasympathetic P.856 Mouth – also called oral cavity or buccal cavity; anteriorly is the oral orifice, posteriorly is the oropharynx P.857 Palate – forms the roof of the mouth, hard palate, soft palate & uvula Tongue – occupies the floor of the mouth and fills most of the oral cavity Mixes food with saliva and forms it into a compact mass called a bolus Filiform papillae, fungiform papillae , vallate papillae and foliate papillae – fungiform, vallate and foliate papillae house taste buds The Salivary Glands P.858 Saliva – (1) cleanses mouth, (2) dissolves food chemicals so that they can be tasted, (3) moistens food and aids in compacting it into a bolus, and (4) contain enzymes that begin the chemical breakdown of starchy foods Extrinsic salivary glands – Intrinsic salivary or buccal glands - Parotid gland – lies anterior to the ear between the masseter muscle and the skin Submandibular gland – lies along the medial aspect of the mandibular body Sublingual gland – underneath the tongue Mumps – inflammation of the parotid glands by the mumps virus Mucous and serous cells – P.859 Composition of Saliva – largely water 97 – 99.5%, so hypo-osmotic; pH is slightly acidic 6.75 – 7.00; solutes includes electrolytes ; digestive enzyme salivary amylase Control of Salivation – 1.5 L per day Teeth – primary, deciduous, milk or baby teeth total 20 Permanent teeth – 32, third molar is also called wisdom teeth, last to emerge between the ages 17 and 25 years P.860 Figures 23.10 & 23.11 P.861 Pharynx – from the mouth, food passes posteriorly into the oropharynx and then the laryngopharynx P.862 Esophagus – a muscular tube; joins the stomach at the cardiac orifice, has cardiac or gastroesophageal sphincter Heartburn – when the acidic gastric juice regurgitates into the esophagus P.863 Mastication (Chewing) – Deglutition (Swallowing) – P.864 Stomach – a temporary “storage tank” where chemical breakdown of proteins begins and food is converted to a creamy paste called chyme P.865 Gross Anatomy: Cardiac region or cardia – Fundus – P.866 Body – Pyloric region or pylorus – Pylorus – continuous with the duodenum through the pyloric sphincter P.866 Microscopic Anatomy: Lining epithelium – simple columner Millions of deep gastric pits, which lead into the gastric glands that produce the stomach secretion called gastric juice 1. Mucous neck cells, produce mucus 2. Chief cells – produce pepsinogen, inactive form of enzyme pepsin, HCl converts pepsinogen to active pepsin 3. Parietal cells – secrete HCl and intrinsic factor. HCl makes the stomach contents extremely acidic (pH 1.5 – 3.5) Intrinsic factor is needed for vitamin B12 absorption in the small intestine 4. Enteroendocrine cells – release a variety of hormones, one is gastrin P.869 Gastric ulcers – erosions of the stomach wall, hypersecretion of HCl and hyposecretion of mucus. Most recurrent ulcers (90%) are due to acid- resistant, corkscrew-shaped Helicobactor pylori bacteria P.870 Pepsin – protein digesting enzyme produced by the gastric mucosa Rennin – only in infants, curdles milk Absorption – alcohol and aspirin Intrinsic factor – for B12 absorption; in its absence pernicious anemia results P.871 Figure 23.17 Regulation of Gastric Secretion Controlled by both neural and hormonal mechanisms 3L of gastric juice is produced daily Parasympathetic (vagus) – stimulate the secretory activity and motility Sympathetic – depresses the secretory activity and motility Phase 1: Cephalic – only neural, gastric secretion occurs before food enters the stomach; only a few minutes long, triggered by smell, taste, sight, or thought of food Phase 2: Gastric –both neural and hormonal, once food reaches the stomach; 3 – 4 hours long and provides about two-thirds of the gastric juice Neural influences initiated by stomach distension Hormone gastrin stimulate gastric secretion Phase 3: Intestinal – one excitatory and the other is inhibitory, GIP, secretin and cholecystokinin P.868 Table 23.1 – Gastrin, GIP, Secretin and Cholecystokinin (CCK) P.875 Small Intestine – body’s major digestive organ; digestion is completed and virtually all absorption occurs Extending from the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve Longest of the alimentary tube Three subdivisions- duodenum (1 feet), jejunum (8 feet) and ileum (12 feet) Mesentery – P.876 Villi – in the core of each villus is a capillary bed and a lymph capillary called a lacteal P.876 Microvilli – brush border Crypts of Lieberkuhn – Peyer’s patches – lymphoid follicles Intestinal juice – 1 to 2 L daily, slightly alkaline pH 7.4 – 7.8 P.878 Liver – body’s most important organ, has many metabolic and regulatory roles. Its digestive function is to produce bile, a fat emulsifier P.881 Bile – is a yellow-green, alkaline solution containing bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, neutral fats, phospholipids and a variety of electrolytes; only bile salts and phospholipids aid in digestion Bile salts – emulsify fats Bilirubin – chief bile pigment P.882 Gallbladder – Stores and concentrate bile Bile is the major vehicle for cholesterol excretion, and bile salts keep the cholesterol dissolved within bile Gallstones – too much cholesterol or too few bile salts The pancreas Pancreas – has head, body & tail Both exocrine and endocrine function Exocrine product is pancreatic juice – secreted by the acinar cells (90%) drains via main pancreatic duct P.883 1 – 1.5 L – contains mainly water, enzymes and bicarbonate ions Scattered amidst the acini are the islets of Langerhans – endocrine part Beta cells (90%) – secrete insulin which lowers blood sugar Alpha cells (10%) – secrete glucagon which raises blood sugar High pH of pancreatic fluid neutralizes the acid chyme entering the duodenum Within the duodenum, trypsinogen is activated to trypsin by enterokinase, an intestinal brush border enzyme Secretin and cholecystokinin – both act on pancreas Secretin – stimulate secretion pancreatic juice rich in bicarbonate Cholecystokinin - stimulate secretion pancreatic juice rich in enzyme P.886 Segmentation – is the most common movement of the small intestine The Large Intestine P.887 Frames the small intestine on three sides and extends from the ileocecal valve to the anus Major function is to absorb water from indigestible food residues and eliminate them from the body as feces P.888 Figure 23.29 Mesocolon – the mesentery P.890 Haustral movement – most seen in the colon P.892 Chemical digestion – a catabolic process, food molecules are broken down to monomers, small enough to be absorbed by the GI tract Hydrolysis – enzymatic breakdown, involves addition of a water P.893 Figure 23.32 P.892 Carbohydrates – P.894 Proteins – P.895 Lipids - P.895 Absorption P.896 Carbohydrates and Proteins – secondary active transport coupled to sodium ion transport Lipids – by simple diffusion Micelles – Chylomicrons -