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Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht
Chapter 2
The Chemical
Basis of Life
Lecture Outline
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2.1 Atoms and Atomic Bonds
Matter
Refers to anything that takes up space and
has mass
Can exist as a solid, liquid, or gas
Composed of elements
• Element—substance that cannot be broken down
into another substance by ordinary chemical
means
• Only 92 naturally occurring elements
• Four elements make up about 96% of the body
weight of most living organisms—carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
Figure 2.1 Elements in
living organisms.
• Atomic structure
Atomic theory states that elements consist of
atoms
Atomic symbol—name of the atom or element
• H for hydrogen or Na for sodium
Subatomic particles
• Neutrons—no electrical charge, found in nucleus
• Protons—positive charge, found in nucleus
• Electrons—negative charge, found outside of
nucleus
Mass number is equal to sum of protons and
neutrons—electrons have about zero mass
• Atomic weight changes with gravity
Figure 2.2 Two models of helium (He).
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+ +
– nucleus
+ +
–
a. b.
• Atomic number
All atoms of an element have this same
number of protons
Also gives number of electrons if an atom is
electrically neutral
• Periodic table
Elements’ chemical and physical
characteristics recur in a predictable manner
Atoms are arranged in periods (rows) and
groups (columns)
Figure 2.3 A portion of the periodic table.
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Groups
1 2
H He
1.008 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
19 20 31 32 33 34 35 36
Periods
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 69.72 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.60
• Isotopes
Atoms of the same element that differ in the
number of neutrons
Isotopes have the same number of protons
but a different number of neutrons (different
mass numbers)
Unstable and may decay, emitting radiation
Radioactive isotope behavior is essentially the
same as a stable isotope of same element
• Can be used as tracer—PET scan
• Can cause damage to cells leading to cancer
• Can be used to sterilize medical equipment
Figure 2.4 PET scan.
Figure 2.5 High levels of
radiation.
• Arrangement of electrons in an atom
Electrons are constantly moving.
Useful to construct models of atoms with energy
levels or electron shells
Each shell contains a certain number of electrons.
For atoms up through number 20
• 2 electrons fill first shell
• 8 electrons fill each additional shell
Octet rule for valence shell
• Valence shell—outermost shell
• If an atom has more than 2 shells, the outer shell is most
stable with 8 electrons
• Atoms can give up, accept, or share electrons to have 8
Chemical properties of atoms are largely determined
by the arrangement of their electrons.
Figure 2.6 Atoms of the six important elements.
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inner shell
electron
electron
shell P
H nucleus C N O
outer
Hydrogen (valence)
1 shell
H
1 Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Phosphorus
6 7 8 15
C N O P
12 14 16 31
Sulfur
16
S
32
• Types of chemical bonds
Molecule—group of atoms bonded together
• O2, H2O, C6H12O6, N2
Compound—molecule containing atoms of
more than one element
• H2O, C6H12O6
2 types of bonds
• Ionic—attraction between opposite charges
• Covalent—sharing electrons to complete outer
shell
• Ionic bonding
Forms when 2 atoms are held together by the
attraction between opposite charges
Sodium has 1 electron in valence shell
• Usually gives up an electron
Chlorine has 7 electrons in valence shell
• Usually accepts an electron from another atom
Figure 2.7a Formation of sodium chloride.
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Na Cl
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Na Cl
H H
Methane (CH4)
H
H C H H C H
H
b. Structural model
hydrogen H
covalent bond
carbon C
H
H
109°
H
d. Space-filling model
c. Ball-and-stick model
• Chemical formulas and reactions
Reactants—molecules that participate in reactions
• Shown to the left of the arrow
Products—molecules formed by reactions
• Shown to the right of the arrow
Equation is balanced if the same number of each type of atom
occurs on both sides of the arrow.
• An overall equation for photosynthesis
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one molecule
C6H12O6
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
b. hydrogen bond
O
H H
a.
Increasing [H+]
stomach acid 1
lemon juice 2
Acid
Coca-Cola, beer, vinegar 3
[H+]
tomatoes 4
black coffee 5
normal rain water
urine 6
saliva
pure water, tears [H+] =
7 neutral pH
human blood [OH–]
seawater 8
Increasing [OH–]
Great Salt Lake10
milk of magnesia [OH–]
household ammonia11
Base
bicarbonate of soda 12
oven cleaner13