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Network Layer
Chapter goals:
understand principles behind network layer
services:
routing (path selection)
dealing with scale
how a router works
advanced topics: IPv6, mobility
on sending side
network
data link network
physical
encapsulates segments
network data link network
data link physical data link
physical physical
into datagrams network
data link
on rcving side, delivers physical network
data link
segments to transport
physical
network
layer network
data link
data link
physical
physical
network layer protocols network
data link application
Routing algorithms
routing algorithm
value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1
3 2
call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow
each packet carries VC identifier (not destination host
address)
every router on source-dest path maintains “state” for
each passing connection
link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be
allocated to VC
12 22 32
1 3
2
1 12 2 22
2 63 1 18
3 7 2 17
1 97 3 87
… … … …
application
transport 5. Data flow begins 6. Receive data application
transport
network 4. Call connected 3. Accept call
network
data link 1. Initiate call 2. incoming call
data link
physical
physical
application
application
transport
transport
network
network
data link 1. Send data 2. Receive data
data link
physical
physical
otherwise 3
Examples
Internet ATM
data exchange among evolved from telephony
computers
human conversation:
“elastic” service, no strict
strict timing, reliability
timing req.
requirements
“smart” end systems
need for guaranteed
(computers)
service
can adapt, perform
“dumb” end systems
control, error recovery
telephones
simple inside network,
complexity inside
complexity at “edge”
network
many link types
different characteristics
uniform service difficult
Network Layer 4-19
Chapter 4: Network Layer
4. 1 Introduction 4.5 Routing algorithms
4.2 Virtual circuit and Link state
Physical layer:
bit-level reception
Data link layer: Decentralized switching:
e.g., Ethernet given datagram dest., lookup output port
see chapter 5 using forwarding table in input port
memory
goal: complete input port processing at
‘line speed’
queuing: if datagrams arrive faster than
forwarding rate into switch fabric
System Bus
Link layer
physical layer
Recipe
To determine the
subnets, detach each
interface from its
host or router,
creating islands of
isolated networks.
Each isolated network
is called a subnet. 223.1.3.0/24
223.1.1.3
223.1.9.2 223.1.7.0
223.1.9.1 223.1.7.1
223.1.8.1 223.1.8.0
223.1.2.6 223.1.3.27
subnet host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/23
Network Layer 4-41
IP addresses: how to get one?
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
“Send me anything
200.23.18.0/23 with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
beginning
199.31.0.0/16”
“Send me anything
with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
Organization 1 beginning 199.31.0.0/16
or 200.23.18.0/23”
200.23.18.0/23
10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7
10.0.0.3
A B C D E F
Physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6
data data
A-to-B: E-to-F:
B-to-C: B-to-C:
IPv6 IPv6
IPv6 inside IPv6 inside
IPv4 IPv4
Network Layer 4-60
Chapter 4: Network Layer
4. 1 Introduction 4.5 Routing algorithms
4.2 Virtual circuit and Link state
value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1
3 2
v 3 w
2 5
u 2 z
1
3
1
x y 2
Graph: G = (N,E) 1
N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }
E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }
v 3 w
2 5
u 2 z
1
3
1
x y 2
1
Network Layer 4-69
Dijkstra’s algorithm, discussion
Algorithm complexity: n nodes
each iteration: need to check all nodes, w, not in N
n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)
more efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn)
Oscillations possible:
e.g., link cost = amount of carried traffic
A A A A
1 1+e 2+e 0 0 2+e 2+e
D 0
B D B D B D B
0 0 1+e 1 0 0 1+e 1
0 C e 0 0 1 e
C C 1+e 0 C
1 1
e … recompute … recompute … recompute
initially
routing
Network Layer 4-70
Chapter 4: Network Layer
4. 1 Introduction 4.5 Routing algorithms
4.2 Virtual circuit and Link state
Then
from
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
from
y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node y table
cost to cost to cost to
x y z x y z x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x z
from
y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from
from
y 2 0 1 7
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node z table
cost to cost to cost to
x y z x y z x y z
x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from
from
y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from
y ∞∞ ∞
z 71 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-77
Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes:
1
node detects local link cost change y
4 1
updates routing info, recalculates
x z
distance vector 50
if DV changes, notify neighbors
3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
1d AS1
Forwarding table is
configured by both
intra- and inter-AS
Intra-AS
Routing
Inter-AS
Routing routing algorithm
Intra-AS sets entries
algorithm algorithm
Forwarding for internal dests
Inter-AS & Intra-As
table
sets entries for
external dests
Network Layer 4-84
Inter-AS tasks AS1 needs:
Suppose router in AS1 1. to learn which dests
receives datagram for are reachable through
which dest is outside AS2 and which
of AS1 through AS3
Router should forward 2. to propagate this
packet towards on of
reachability info to all
the gateway routers,
but which one? routers in AS1
Job of inter-AS routing!
3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
1d AS1
Network Layer 4-85
Example: Setting forwarding table
in router 1d
u destination hops
v
u 1
A B w v 2
w 2
x 3
x y 3
z C D z 2
y
C
Destination Network Next Router Num. of hops to dest.
w A 2
y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Routing table in D
C
Destination Network Next Router Num. of hops to dest.
w A 2
y B 2
z B A 7 5
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Routing table in D Network Layer 4-94
RIP: Link Failure and Recovery
If no advertisement heard after 180 sec -->
neighbor/link declared dead
routes via neighbor invalidated
new advertisements sent to neighbors
neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if
tables changed)
link failure info quickly propagates to entire net
poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops
(infinite distance = 16 hops)
Transprt Transprt
(UDP) (UDP)
network forwarding forwarding network
(IP) table table (IP)
link link
physical physical
3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
AS1 1d
eBGP session
iBGP session
Network Layer 4-104
Distributing reachability info
With eBGP session between 3a and 1c, AS3 sends prefix
reachability info to AS1.
1c can then use iBGP do distribute this new prefix reach info
to all routers in AS1
1b can then re-advertise the new reach info to AS2 over the
1b-to-2a eBGP session
When router learns about a new prefix, it creates an entry
for the prefix in its forwarding table.
3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
AS1 1d
eBGP session
iBGP session
Network Layer 4-105
Path attributes & BGP routes
When advertising a prefix, advert includes BGP
attributes.
prefix + attributes = “route”
Two important attributes:
AS-PATH: contains the ASs through which the advert
for the prefix passed: AS 67 AS 17
NEXT-HOP: Indicates the specific internal-AS router to
next-hop AS. (There may be multiple links from current
AS to next-hop-AS.)
When gateway router receives route advert, uses
import policy to accept/decline.
Policy:
Inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic
routed, who routes through its net.
Intra-AS: single admin, so no policy decisions needed
Scale:
hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced update
traffic
Performance:
Intra-AS: can focus on performance
Inter-AS: policy may dominate over performance
R3 R4 R3 R4
(a) (b)
B
c
D
F E
B B
c c
D D
F E F E
G G
(a) Broadcast initiated at A (b) Broadcast initiated at D
S: source LEGEND
R1 2
1 R4 router with attached
group member
R2 5
router with no attached
3 4
R5 group member
R3 6 i link used for forwarding,
R6 R7 i indicates order link
added by algorithm
Reverse Path Forwarding
S: source LEGEND
LEGEND
Dense: Sparse:
group members # networks with group
densely packed, in members small wrt #
“close” proximity. interconnected networks
bandwidth more group members “widely
plentiful dispersed”
bandwidth not plentiful
Consequences of Sparse-Dense Dichotomy:
Dense Sparse:
group membership by no membership until
routers assumed until routers explicitly join
routers explicitly prune receiver- driven
data-driven construction construction of mcast
on mcast tree (e.g., RPF) tree (e.g., center-based)
bandwidth and non- bandwidth and non-group-
group-router processing router processing
profligate conservative
PIM- Dense Mode