Machining

Cutting action involves shear deformation of

work material to form a chip
 As chip is removed, new surface is exposed

Figure 21.2 (a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b)

tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
 Orthogonal Cutting Model
Simplified 2-D model of machining that
describes the mechanics of machining
fairly accurately

Figure 21.6 Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process.

 to
r 
tc

where r = chip thickness ratio; to =

thickness of the chip prior to chip
formation; and tc = chip thickness
after separation
 Chip thickness after cut always
greater than before, so chip ratio
always less than 1.0
Chip Thickness Ratio
  Based on the geometric parameters
of the orthogonal model, the shear
plane angle  can be determined as:
r cos 
tan  
1  r sin

where r = chip ratio, and  = rake angle

Determining Shear Plane Angle

 Shear Strain in Chip Formation

Figure 21.7 Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip

formation depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative
to each other, (b) one of the plates isolated to show shear
strain, and (c) shear strain triangle used to derive strain
equation.
Shear Strain
Shear strain in machining can be
computed from the following
equation, based on the preceding
parallel plate model:
 = tan( - ) + cot 
where  = shear strain,  = shear
plane angle, and  = rake angle of
cutting tool
 Chip Formation

Figure 21.8 More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear

zone rather than shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear
zone resulting from tool-chip friction.
1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge
(BUE)
4. Serrated chip

Four Basic Types of Chip in

Machining
 Discontinuous Chip

 Brittle work
materials
 Low cutting
speeds
 Large feed and
depth of cut
 High tool-chip
friction

Figure 21.9 Four types of

chip formation in
metal cutting: (a)
discontinuous
 Continuous Chip

 Ductile work
materials
 High cutting
speeds
 Small feeds and
depths
 Sharp cutting
edge
 Low tool-chip
friction

Figure 21.9 (b) continuous

 Continuous with BUE
 Ductile materials
 Low-to-medium
cutting speeds
 Tool-chip friction
causes portions of
chip to adhere to
rake face
 BUE forms, then
breaks off,
cyclically

Figure 21.9 (c) continuous

with built-up edge
 Serrated Chip
 Semicontinuous -
saw-tooth
appearance
 Cyclical chip
forms with
alternating high
shear strain then
low shear strain
 Associated with
difficult-to-
machine metals
at high cutting
speeds
Figure 21.9 (d) serrated.
 Forces Acting on Chip
 Friction force F and Normal force to friction
N
 Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn

Figure 21.10 Forces in

metal cutting: (a) forces
acting on the chip in
orthogonal cutting
 Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
 Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
 Forces acting on the chip must be in
balance:
◦ R' must be equal in magnitude to R
◦ R’ must be opposite in direction to R
◦ R’ must be collinear with R

Resultant Forces
 Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:

F

N

Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as follows:

  tan 

Coefficient of Friction
 Shear stress acting along the shear plane:
Fs
S
As

where As = area of the shear plane

t ow
As 
sin 

Shear stress = shear strength of work material during cutting

Shear Stress
 Cutting Force and Thrust Force
 F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured
 Forces acting on the tool that can be
measured:
› Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft

Figure 21.10 Forces

in metal cutting: (b)
forces acting on the
tool that can be
measured
 Equations can be derived to relate the
forces that cannot be measured to the
forces that can be measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
 Based on these calculated force, shear
stress and coefficient of friction can be
determined

Forces in Metal Cutting

  Of all the possible angles at which
shear deformation can occur, the
work material will select a shear
plane angle  that minimizes energy,
given by  
  45  
2 2

 Derived by Eugene Merchant

 Based on orthogonal cutting, but
validity extends to 3-D machining

The Merchant Equation

  
  45  
2 2

 To increase shear plane angle

◦ Increase the rake angle
◦ Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient
of friction)

What the Merchant Equation

Tells Us
Force relationships Merchant circle
edge angle shear angle
 
Ski
Snow
p
Fs

Fc
Forces
Fn Fc = centrifugal
F
(cutting)
Ft = thrust
 R -- Ft
Fs = shear
Fn = normal to
N shear plane
 F = friction on ski
N = normal to ski

-
Cutting tool geometry
 The most important geometry’s to
consider on a cutting tool are
◦ Back Rake Angles
◦ End Relief Angles
◦ Side Relief Angles

Tool Geometry
 Small to medium rake angles cause:
◦ high compression
◦ high tool forces
◦ high friction
◦ result = Thick—highly deformed—hot chips

Rake Angles
 Larger positive
rake angles
› Reduce
compression and
less chance of a
discontinuous chip
› Reduce forces
› Reduce friction
› Result = A thinner,
less deformed, and
cooler chip.
Rake Angles
 Problems….as we increase the angle:
◦ Reduce strength of tool
◦ Reduce the capacity of the tool to conduct heat
away from the cutting edge.
◦ To increase the strength of the tool and allow it
to conduct heat better, in some tools, zero to
negative rake angles are used.

Rake Angles
 Typical tool materials which utilize
negative rakes are:
 Carbide
 Diamonds
 Ceramics
 These materials tend to be much more
brittle than HSS but they hold superior
hardness at high temperatures. The
negative rake angles transfer the cutting
forces to the tool which help to provide
added support to the cutting edge.
Negative Rake Tools
Negative Rake Tools
 Positive rake angles
› Reduced cutting forces
› Smaller deflection of work, tool holder, and
machine
› Considered by some to be the most efficient way
to cut metal
› Creates large shear angle, reduced friction and
heat
› Allows chip to move freely up the chip-tool zone
› Generally used for continuous cuts on ductile
materials which are not to hard or brittle

Summary Positive vs. Negative

Rake Angles
 Negative rake angles
◦ Initial shock of work to tool is on the face of
the tool and not on the point or edge. This
prolongs the life of the tool.
◦ Higher cutting speeds/feeds can be employed

Summary Positive vs.

Negative Rake Angles
 Factors to consider for tool angles
◦ The hardness of the metal
◦ Type of cutting operation
◦ Material and shape of the cutting tool
◦ The strength of the cutting edge

Tool Angle Application

 HIGH STRESSES & TEMPERATURES
 GRADUAL WEAR
 MANY VARIABLES
 MATERIAL
 CUTTING FLUIDS
 TOOL SHAPE
 SPEEDS & FEED RATE
 CHIPPING

Tool Life
Tool Wear
 1.Good cooling
capacity 6. Rust
2. Good lubricating resistance
qualities 7. Nontoxic
3. Resistance to
8. Transparent
rancidity
4. Relatively low 9. Nonflammabl
viscosity e
5. Stability (long
Characteristics
life) of a Good
Cutting Fluid
34
  Most commonly used cutting fluids
◦ Either aqueous based solutions or cutting
oils
 Fall into three categories
◦ Cutting oils
◦ Emulsifiable oils
◦ Chemical (synthetic) cutting fluids

Types of Cutting Fluids

35
 Two classifications
◦ Active
◦ Inactive
 Terms relate to oil's chemical activity or
ability to react with metal surface
◦ Elevated temperatures
◦ Improve cutting action
◦ Protect surface

Cutting Oils
36
 Those that will darken copper strip
immersed for 3 hours at temperature of
212ºF
 Dark or transparent
 Better for heavy-duty jobs
 Three categories
◦ Sulfurized mineral oils
◦ Sulfochlorinated mineral oils
◦ Sulfochlorinated fatty oil blends
Active Cutting Oils
37
  Oils will not darken copper strip
immersed in them for 3 hours at
212ºF
 Contained sulfur is natural
◦ Termed inactive because sulfur so firmly
attached to oil – very little released
 Four general categories
◦ Straight mineral oils, fatty oils, fatty and
mineral oil blends, sulfurized fatty-mineral
oil blend
Inactive Cutting Oils
38
Emulsifiable (Water Soluble)
Oils
 Mineral oils containing soaplike material
that makes them soluble in water and
causes them to adhere to workpiece
 Emulsifiers break oil into minute particles
and keep them separated in water
› Supplied in concentrated form (1-5 /100 water)
 Good cooling and lubricating qualities
 Used at high cutting speeds, low cutting
pressures

39
 Chemical Cutting Fluids

 Also called synthetic fluids

 Introduced about 1945
 Stable, preformed emulsions
› Contain very little oil and mix easily with water
 Extreme-pressure (EP) lubricants added
› React with freshly machined metal under heat
and pressure of a cut to form solid lubricant
 Reduce heat of friction and heat caused
by plastic deformation of metal

40
 1. Good rust control
2. Resistance to rancidity for long
periods of time
3. Reduction of amount of heat
generated during cutting
4. Excellent cooling qualities

Advantages of Synthetic
Fluids
41
5. Longer durability than cutting or soluble
oils
6. Nonflammable - nonsmoking
7. Nontoxic??????
8. Easy separation from work and chips
9. Quick settling of grit and fine chips so
they are not recirculated in cooling
system
10. No clogging of machine cooling system
due to detergent action of fluid
11. Can leave a residue on parts and tools

42
Chemical cutting fluids widely accepted
and generally used on ferrous metals. They
are not recommended for use on alloys of
magnesium, zinc, cadmium, or lead. They
can mar machine's appearance and dissolve
paint on the surface.

Caution
43
  Prime functions
◦ Provide cooling
◦ Provide lubrication
 Other functions
◦ Prolong cutting-tool life
◦ Provide rust control
◦ Resist rancidity

Functions of a Cutting Fluid

44
 Heat has definite bearing on cutting-tool
wear
› Small reduction will greatly extend tool life
 Two sources of heat during cutting action
› Plastic deformation of metal
 Occurs immediately ahead of cutting tool
 Accounts for 2/3 to 3/4 of heat
› Friction from chip sliding along cutting-tool face

Functions of a Cutting Fluid:

Cooling
45
 Water most effective for reducing heat
by will promote oxidation (rust)
 Decrease the temperature at the chip-
tool interface by 50 degrees F, and it will
increase tool life by up to 5 times.

Functions of a Cutting Fluid:

Cooling
46
  Reduces friction between chip and tool
face
› Shear plane becomes shorter
› Area where plastic deformation occurs
correspondingly smaller
 Extreme-pressure lubricants reduce
amount of heat-producing friction
 EP chemicals of synthetic fluids combine
chemically with sheared metal of chip to
form solid compounds (allow chip to
slide)
Functions of a Cutting Fluid:
Lubrication
47
 Cutting fluid reduces friction
and produces a shorter
shear plane.
48
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Permission required for reproduction or display.
Cutting fluid reduces friction
and produces a shorter
shear plane.
49
  Heat and friction prime causes of
cutting-tool breakdown
 Reduce temperature by as little as 50ºF,
life of cutting tool increases fivefold
 Built-up edge
› Pieces of metal weld themselves to tool face
› Becomes large and flat along tool face,
effective rake angle of cutting tool decreased

Cutting-Tool Life
50
Built-up edge keeps
breaking off and
re-forming

Result is poor
surface finish,
excessive flank
wear, and cratering
Built-up
of tool face Edge
51
 1. Lowers heat created by plastic
deformation of metal
2. Friction at chip-tool interface decreased
3. Less power is required for machining
because of reduced friction
4. Prevents built-up edge from forming
5. Surface finish of work greatly improved

Cutting Fluid's Effect on

Cutting Tool Action
52
  Water best and most economical
coolant
◦ Causes parts to rust
 Rust is oxidized iron
 Chemical cutting fluids contain rust
inhibitors
◦ Polar film
◦ Passivating film

Rust Control
53
  Rancidity caused by bacteria and other
microscopic organisms, growing and
eventually causing bad odors to form
 Most cutting fluids contain bactericides
that control growth of bacteria and
make fluids more resistant to rancidity

Rancidity Control
54
  Cutting-tool life and machining
operations influenced by way cutting
fluid applied
 Copious stream under low pressure so
work and tool well covered
◦ Inside diameter of supply nozzle ¾ width
of cutting tool
◦ Applied to where chip being formed

Application of Cutting Fluids

55
 Another way to cool chip-tool interface
 Effective, inexpensive and readily
available
 Used where dry machining is necessary
 Uses compressed air that enters vortex
generation chamber
› Cooled 100ºF below incoming air
 Air directed to interface and blow chips
away
Refrigerated Air System
56
 Hardness (Elevated temperatures)
 Toughness (Impact forces on tool in
interrupted operations)
 Wear resistance (tool life to be
considered)
 Chemical stability or inertness (to avoid
adverse reactions)

Characteristics of cutting
tool
 Carbon & medium alloy steels
 High speed steels
 Cast-cobalt alloys
 Carbides
 Coated tools
 Alumina-based ceramics
 Cubic boron nitride
 Silicon-nitride-base ceramics
 Diamond
 Whisker-reinforced materials

Cutting tool materials

 Oldest of tool materials
 Used for drills taps,broaches,reamers
 Inexpensive ,easily shaped,sharpened
 No sufficient hardness and wear resistance
 Limited to low cutting speed operation

Carbon and Medium alloy

steels
 Hardened to various depths
High
 Good wearspeed steels
resistance
 Relatively
 Suitable for high positive rake angle tools
 Molybdenum ( M-series)
 Tungsten ( T-series)

Two basic types of HSS

 Contains 10% molybdenum, chromium,
vanadium, tungsten, cobalt
 Higher, abrasion resistance
 H.S.S. are majorly made of M-series

M-series
 12 % - 18 % tungsten, chromium,
vanadium & cobalt
 undergoes less distortion during heat
treating

T-series
 H.S.S. available in wrought ,cast & sintered
(Powder metallurgy)

 Coated for better performance

 Subjected to surface treatments such as case-

hardening for improved hardness and wear
resistance or steam treatment at elevated
temperatures

 High speed steels account for largest tonnage

 Cast-Cobalt
alloys
 Commonly known as stellite tools
 Composition ranges – 38% - 53 % cobalt
30%- 33% chromium
10%-20%tungsten
 Good wear resistance ( higher hardness)
 Less tough than high-speed steels and sensitive to
impact forces
 Less suitable than high-speed steels for interrupted
cutting operations
 Continuous roughing cuts – relatively high g=feeds
& speeds
 Finishing cuts are at lower feed and depth of cut
 Carbides :
3-groups of materials
 Alloy steels
 High speed steels
 Cast alloys

 These carbides are also known as cemented or

sintered carbides
 High elastic modulus,thermal conductivity
 Low thermal expansion

2-groups of carbides used for machining operations

 tungsten carbide
 titanium carbide
 Tungsten Carbide

 Composite material consisting of tungsten-carbide particles

bonded together

 Alternate name is cemented carbides

 Manufactured with powder metallurgy techniques

 Particles 1-5 Mum in size are pressed & sintered to desired

shape

 Amount of cobalt present affects properties of carbide tools

 As cobalt content increases – strength hardness & wear

resistance increases
 Titanium carbide

 Titanium carbide has higher wear resistance

than tungsten carbide

 Nickel-Molybdenum alloy as matrix – Tic

suitable for machining hard materials

 Steels & cast irons

 Speeds higher than those for tungsten

carbide
Inserts
 Individual cutting tool with severed cutting points
 Clamped on tool shanks with locking mechanisms
 Inserts also brazed to the tools
 Clamping is preferred method for securing an insert
 Carbide Inserts available in various shapes-Square,
Triangle, Diamond and round
 Strength depends on the shape
 Inserts honed, chamfered or produced with negative
land to improve edge strength
Inserts
Insert
Attachment

Fig : Methods of
attaching inserts
to toolholders :
(a) Clamping and
(b) Wing
lockpins. (c)
Examples of
inserts attached
to toolholders
with threadless
lockpins, which
are secured with
side screws.
Edge
Strength
Fig : Relative edge
strength and
tendency for
chipping and
breaking of
inserts with
various shapes.
Strength refers
to the cutting
edge shown by
the included
angles.

Fig : edge preparation of

inserts to improve edge
strength.
 Chip breakers:

Purpose :
 Eliminating long chips
 Controlling chip flow during machining
 Reducing vibration & heat generated
 Selection depends on feed and depth
of cut
 Work piece material,type of chip
produced during cutting
 Coated tools :

- High strength and toughness but generally

abrasive and chemically reactive with tool
materials

Unique Properties :
 Lower Friction
 High resistance to cracks and wear
 High Cutting speeds and low time & costs
 Longer tool life
 Coating materials
 Titanium nitride (TiN)
 Titanium carbide (Tic)
 Titanium Carbonitride (TicN)
 Aluminum oxide (Al2O3)thickness range – 2-15 µm (80-
600Mu.in)

Techniques used :
 Chemical –vapor deposition (CVD)
Plasma assisted CVD
 Physical-vapor deposition(PVD)
 Medium –temperature chemical- vapor
deposition(MTCVD)
 Properties for Group of
Materials

Fig : Ranges of properties

for various groups of
tool materials.
 Cutting tool Characteristics for
coating :

 High hardness
 Chemical stability
 Low thermal conductivity
 Good bonding
 Little or no Porosity

Titanium nitride (TiN) coating :

 Low friction coefficients
 High hardness
 Resistance to high temperatures
 Good adhesion to substrate
 High life of high speed-steel tools

Titanium carbide (TiC) coating:

 Titanium carbide coatings on tungsten-carbide inserts have high flank
wear resistance.
 Ceramics
:

 Low thermal conductivity ,resistance ,high temperature

 Resistance to flank wear and crater wear
 Ceramics are suitable materials for tools
 Al2O3 (most commonly used)

Multi Phase Coatings :

 First layer –Should bond well with substrate
 Outer layer – Resist wear and have low thermal
conductivity
 Intermediate layer – Bond well & compatible with both
layers
 Coatings of alternating multipurpose layers are also
formed.
Multiphase
Coatings

Fig : Multiphase coatings

on a tungsten-carbide
substrate. Three
alternating layers of
aluminum oxide are
separated by very thin
layers of titanium
nitride. Inserts with as
many as thirteen
layers of coatings
have been made.
Coating thick nesses
are typically in the
range of 2 to 10 µm.
 Diamond Coated
tools :

 Use of Polycrystalline diamond as a coating

 Difficult to adhere diamond film to substrate
 Thin-film diamond coated inserts now
commercially available
 Thin films deposited on substrate with PVD & CVD
techniques
 Thick films obtained by growing large sheet of
pure diamond
 Diamond coated tools particularly effective in
machining non-ferrous and abrasive materials
 Titanium carbo nitride (TiCN)
 Titanium Aluminum Nitride(TiAlN)
 Chromium Based coatings
 Chromium carbide
 Zirconium Nitride (ZrN)
 Hafnium nitride (HfN)
 Recent developments gives nano coating & composite coating

Ion Implementation :
 Ions placed into the surface of cutting tool
 No change in the dimensions of tool
 Nitrogen-ion Implanted carbide tools used for alloy steels & stainless


New Coating materials :
steels
Xeon – ion implantation of tools as under development
 Alumina-Based
ceramics:

 Cold-Pressed Into insert shapes under high pressure and

sintered at high temperature
 High Abrasion resistance and hot hardness
 Chemically stable than high speed steels & carbides
 So less tendency to adhere to metals
 Good surface finish obtained in cutting cast iron and steels
 Negative rake-angle preferred to avoid chipping due to poor
tensile strength

Cermets, Black or Hot- Pressed :

 70% aluminum oxide & 30 % titanium carbide
 cermets(ceramics & metal)
 Cermets contain molybdenum carbide, niobium carbide and
tantalum carbide.
 Cubic boron Nitride (
CBN ) :
 Made by bonding ( 0.5-1.0 mm ( 0.02-0.04-in)
 Layer of poly crystalline cubic boron nitride to a carbide substrate by sintering
under pressure
 While carbide provides shock resistance CBN layer provides high resistance
and cutting edge strength
 Cubic boron nitride tools are made in small sizes without substrate
Fig : (a) Construction of a polycrystalline cubic boron nitride or a diamond layer on a tungsten-carbide insert. (b) Inserts
with polycrystalline cubic boron nitride tips (top row) and solid polycrystalline CBN inserts (bottom row).
 Silicon-Nitride based ceramics
(SiN)

 They consists various addition of Aluminum Oxide ythrium oxide,

titanium carbide

 SiN have toughness, hot hardened & good thermal – shock

resistance

 SiN base material is Silicon

 High thermal & shock resistance

 Recommended for machining cast iron and nickel based super

alloys at intermediate cutting speeds
 Diamond
:

 Hardest known substance

 Low friction, high wear resistance
 Ability to maintain sharp cutting edge
 Single crystal diamond of various carats used
for special applications
 Machining copper—front precision optical
mirrors for ( SDI)
 Diamond is brittle , tool shape & sharpened is
important
 Low rake angle used for string cutting edge
 Used for wire drawing of fine wires
 Small synthesis crystal fused by high pressure and
temperature
 Bonded to a carbide substrate
 Diamond tools can be used fir any speed
 Suitable for light un-interrupted finishing cuts
 To avoid tool fracture single crystal diamond is to
be re-sharpened as it becomes dull
Polycrystalline-Diamond ( PCD )
 Also used as an abrasive in grinding and polishing
operations Tools:
New tool materials with enhanced properties :

 High fracture toughness

 Resistance to thermal shock
 Cutting –edge strength
 Hot hardness

Whisker –reinforced &

Nanocrystalline tool materials
 Whiskers used as reinforcing
fibers :

 Examples: Silicon-nitride base tools reinforced

with silicon-carbide( Sic)

 Aluminum oxide based tools reinforced with

silicon-carbide with ferrous metals makes Sic-
reinforced tools

 Progress in nanomaterial has lead to the

development of cutting tools

 Made of fine grained structures as (micro grain)

carbides