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radiation
particles particles rays
Mass 4 1/1850 0
(nucleon
unit)
(–)
mass of >> mass of
deflection: <<
5 Deflection in electric & magnetic field
F
b In magnetic field
B
radioactive
source
B-field (into paper)
Flow of particles = Flow of positive charges
= Direction of Current
Flow of particles = Flow of negative charges
= Opposite direction of current
b In magnetic field
radiation tracks in
a very strong B-field
(Photo credit: Lord Blackett’s Estate)
Radiation Detectors
Photographic Film
To detect , and radiations
Spark counter
To detect -particles
Ionization Chamber
To detect -particles
Cloud Chamber
To detect and particles
Geiger-Müller Tube
To detect , and radiations
Photographic Film
radiation
Having a strong ionizing power,
the heavy particles give
straight and thick tracks of
about the same length.
radiation Tracks of rays can hardly be seen.
They are twisted because the
particles are small in mass
and bounce off from air
molecules on collision.
Cloud Chamber Tracks (3)
When ionizing
radiation enters the
GM tube, ions and free
electrons are formed.
A flow of charge takes
place and causes a
pulse of current.
The pulse of current is
amplified and counted
electronically.
GM tube
Central wire as
anode (+)
Aluminium tube
radiation
400 V d.c
Mica end-window
Argon gas at low
pressure counter
radiation
400 V d.c
Mica end-window
Argon gas at low
pressure counter
Beta decay
AX A
Z Z + 1Y +10 e
Gamma emission
A X*
Z
A
ZX + energy
Example 1
No. of throws No. of dice remaining
0 100
1 89
2 71
3 54
4 46
5 37
6 28
7 24
8 20
9 18
10 16
The points plotted do
not fall exactly on the
curve. The fluctuations
are due to the random
nature of dice throwing.
Radioactive decay is
also random in nature
because, like the dice
‘decay’ the chance of
certain nuclei decaying
at a particular time is
random.
no. of undecayed nuclei
2250
2000 Always decreasing.
1750 Decrease rapidly in the
1500 beginning.
1250 Decreases gently
finally.
1000
Becomes zero after a
750
long time.
500
250
0
Time / s
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Activity of a radioactive isotope (1)
Let N(t) be the number of radioactive nuclei in a
sample at time t.
dN (t )
Decay rate (Activity) =
dt
The `-’ sign indicates that N(t) decreases with time
The SI unit of activity is the becquerel (Bq).
The decay rate is directly proportional to N(t).
dN (t )
kN (t )
dt
The constant k is called the decay constant. A large value
of k corresponds to rapid decay.
Activity of a radioactive isotope (2)
dN
dN
From kN, k dt
dt N
A0
½A0
¼A0
⅛A0
Half-life (1)
dN (t )
undecayed nucleus N (t )
dt
decayed nucleus dN(t)
= -kN(t)
dt
Radiation hazard
Medical uses
Treatment of body cancer
Investigation of Thyroid Gland (甲狀腺)
Radon-222 ( emitted)
Iodine-131 ( emitted)
Industrial uses
-source
To vacuum pump
Alpha-scattering Experiment (2)
Rutherford’s assumptions:
All the atom’s positive charge is concentrated
in a relatively small volume, called the nucleus
of the atom 10-15 m
The electrons surround
the nucleus at relatively
large distance.
Most of the atom’s
mass is concentrated in 10-10 m
its nucleus.
Difficulties of Rutherford’s model
Mass defect
The difference between the mass of an atom and
the mass of its particles taken separately is called
the mass defect (Δm).
Δm = Zmp +Nmn- Mnucleus
The mass defect is small compared with the total
mass of the atom.
Unified Atomic Mass Unit
Fission
Fusion
Binding energy Curve (2)
Nuclear fission is a
decay process in
which an unstable
nucleus splits into
two fragments of
comparable mass.
Two typical nuclear fission reactions are:
U 01n144
235
92 56 Ba 89
36 Kr 3 1
0n
+ energy released
U 01n140
235
92 54 Xe 94
38 Sr 2 1
0n
+ energy released
Principles of Nuclear Fission (2)
2
1 H 13H 24 He 01n 17.6MeV
Conditions for a Fusion Reaction (1)
Temperature
Fusion reactions occur at a sufficient rate only at very high
temperature. Over 108 oC is needed for the Deuterium-
Tritium reaction.
Density
The density of fuel ions must be sufficiently large for fusion
reactions to take place at the required rate. The fusion power
generated is reduced if the fuel is diluted by impurity atoms
or by the accumulation of Helium ‘ash’ from the fusion
reaction.
As fuel ions are burnt in the fusion process they must be
replaced by new fuel and the Helium ash must be removed.
Conditions for a Fusion Reaction (2)
Confinement
The hot plasma must be well
isolated away from material
surfaces in order to avoid cooling
the plasma and releasing
impurities that would
contaminate and further cool the
plasma.
In the Tokamak system, the
plasma is isolated by magnetic
fields.
Advantages of Nuclear Fusion
-
α
+
Deflection in electric field Deflection in magnetic field
Deflection of α, β and γ rays in
electric and magnetic fields (2)
Under the effect of electric field or magnetic field, (in
the direction of going into the paper);
α-ray shows small deflection in an upward direction;
2m
V u
M m
Control rods