PROCESS CONTROL

CLB 21303
 CHAPTER 2.0

Final Control Elements

2.1Final Control Elements
2.2Types of Valve and Its Applications
2.3Valve Sizing and Characteristic
2.4Types of Pump and Its Applications
 2.1Final Control Elements/ Control valve

 A control valve is a variable orifice

 A typical control valve consists of two
main components:
Actuator and valve body.

5
 VALVE
BODY
The body of the valve
defines:

1. the flow path &

2. is selected to
achieve the
desired fluid flow
behavior.

4 23
 ACTUATOR
ASSEMBLY
1. The actuator provides the
force necessary to change
the valve stem position –
alter the flow rate through
valve.
2. E.g.: the size of the
opening for flow (position of
valve stem)
3. The most common actuator
is a pneumatic diaphragm
21
 Packing box: very important, there must a
minimum friction of packing box and valve stem.
 Vlave plug or closure member : the moveable part
of the valve that is positioned in the flow patch to
modify the rate of flow through the valve.
 Closure member guide: the portion of closure
member that aligns its movement in either a cage,
seat ring, bonnet, bottom flange or any two of
these.
 Valve seat: the area of contact between the
closure member and it mating surface that
establishes the valve shut-off.
 Seat ring: A part of the valve body assembly that
provide a seating surface for the closure member
and can provide the part of the flow control orific.
 Vale cage: the valve cage is hollow cylindrical
trim element that is used as a guide to align the
movement of a vlave plug.
 Valve stem: the valve stem is a rod connected
between the diaphram plate and the valve plug.
 Yoke: the structure that rigidly connects the
actuator power unit to the vale
 The valve positioner
 Positioners are instruments which help improve
control by accurately positioning a control valve
actuator in response to a control signal.
 Positioners receive an input signal either
pneumatically or by electronically and provide
output power, generally pnumatically, to an
actuator to assure valve positioning.
 A feedback linkage between valve stem and
positioner is established so that the stem position
can be compared with the position dictated by
the controller signal.
 Use of positioner is generally desirable to
linearize the control valve plug position with a
control signal.
 Positioners improve the performance of the
control valve.
 Hysteresis
 The motion of the valve stem positioned by a
diaphram actuator is not exactly linear for uniform
changes is air pressure (pnuematic signal).
 the non-linearity is caused by the diaphram
materials, variation in spring rate, the moving
pieces and packing box friction.
 Pracking friction varies with fluid pressure and the
type of compression of packing.
 one of the effects of friction and non-linear
diaphragm characteristics is hysteresis.
 Hysteresis is the difference between position on
increasing vs. position on decreasing pneumatic
signal pressure.
 Hysteresis can be as high as 10%
 To overcome,
 good design of the actuator,
 careful choice of low-friction packing, such as Teflon
rings,
 use of valve positioner
 Pneumatic valve positioner
 For every control signal (output of controller),
there is a certain position of the control valve.
 Every deviation of the control valve is detected
by the flapper nozle system and converted to an
air pressure variation at the contro valve actuator
such that the control valve enters the correct
position.
 The valve positioner ensures that the valve
always takes up the postion corresponding to the
control signal regardless of the pressure
difference across the valve or the friction of the
valve.
Pneumatic valve positioner
 Pneumatic-electric postioner
 identical to pneumatic positioner
 an electromotive force is produced when en electric
signal is fed through the windings of coil.
 This force is balanced by a feed back spring sensing the
control valve stem position.
 an increase in signal temporarily tilts a beam covering an
air-nozzle, resulting in an increase in air signal.
 the air signal drives the valve stem to the desired
position.
 the change in stem postion increases tension in the feed
back spring untill the electromotive force of the coil is
balanced.
Pneumatic-electric postioner
 PNEUMATIC CONTROL VALVE

Air-to-Open/Fail Closed (AO/FC)

Air to open valves are normally held closed by the spring and require air pressure (from a
control signal) to open them - they open progressively as the air pressure increases.

Air-to-Close/Fail Opened (AC/FO)

Air to close valves are normally held opened by the spring and require air pressure (from a
control signal) to close them – they close progressively as the air pressure increases.

* WHY should have these types of valve?

- to create a FAIL SAFE condition (in case of plant instrument air supply
failure)
- E.g.: A feed valve to an exothermic reactor should be a AO/FC valve.
- A coolant water valve should be a AC/FO valve.
22
 Q = CA√ΔP
 Q = Quantity of flow
 C = constant for conditions of flow
 A = Valve opening area
 ΔP = Pressure drop across the valve
 Main features of control valve
 Valve capacity
 Valve Sizing

Valve capacity
The unit is Cν rating
Cν rating is defined as the numbers of US gallons o
water per minute (as standard condition of temperature
and pressure) that will flow through wide open valve
when there is 1 psi (KPa) pressure drop across it.
Valve sizing

 For two reasons valve sizing is required:

 Economics
 Control
 Economics
 If oversized, doesn't have enough
resistance
 If unsersized, cannot meet the flow
requirement.
Control

 If undersized, never deliver the full flow

rate, will narrow the controlable flow
range.
 If oversized, throttling near the closed
position, full control range will not be
utilized.
 When the plug throttles very close to seat,
high fluid velocities can cause erosive
damge. Thus Cν calculation is important.
 Cν calculation
 For liquid, Cν = Q√(G/ΔP)
 For Gases, Cν = Q/1360√(TfG/ΔP(P2)

 For steam and vapors, Cν = W/63.3√ν/ΔP

Q or W = Flow rate
G = specific gravity
Tf = Flowing tem. in deg. Rankins (oF + 460)
ΔP = pressure drop in psi (P1-P2)
P1 = U/S pressure at valve inlet in psi abs.
P2 = D/S pressure at valve discharge in psi abs.
ν = D/S specific volume in cubic feet per pound
Typical value for Cν rating for
different valve size
Valve size (in) Cν Valve size (in) Cν

1/4 0.3 3 110

1/2 3.0 4 175
1 15 6 400
11/2 35 8 750
2 55
valve characteristics

 the valve characteristic is the relationship

of the change in the valve opening to the
change in flow through the valve.
 most frequently used characteristics are
linear, quick and equal percentage.
Typical characteristic curves
the relationship can be expressed
as
 Q/Qmax = X/Xmax
 Q = flow rate
 X = stem position
 Qmax = the maximum flow rate
 Xmax = the maximum stem position
 Rangeability is a ration of maximum flow
to minimum flow,
 R = Qmax/Qmin
 also the ratio of rated Cν to minimum
contrllable Cν
Valve Body: The valve body to the fluid type and process needs?

Fluids: water, nitrogen, tree pulp and water, blood,

sewage, food products (yogurt), highly pure pharma
products, hazards (isocyanates), polymer melts, and
just about anything else that flows!

24
 Pump technology and operation
 Pumps are machines, used for transporting and
raising the pressure of fluid, which are driven
from some external source.
 A pump is a mechanical device, which can
transfer rotational energy (mechanical energy) of
the machine to the potential and kinetic energy of
the fluid.
 Note: A fluid only flows if there is a pressure
difference.
 The function of pump is to create this pressure
difference of the transporting fluid.
Classification of pump
 Centrifugal pump
Centrifugal pump works utilizing centrifugal force.
the liquid first come in at the center of the impeller.
it is then forced outward from the center.
 Centrifugal force

centrifugal force is the force of spinning. when an

object is spun around in a circle, it pushes outward
from the center of the circle. one way to increase
the energy of a liquid is to whirl the liquid around
the circle.
 Construction description
Important parts
 Impeller
 radial flow impeller
 Axial flow impeller
 mixed flow impeller
 shaft
 stuffing box
 seals
 casing
 shaft sleeve
 bearing
 coupling
Impeller
impeller is the bladed member of a rotating assembly
of the pump. it imparts the principal force to the liquid
to be pumped. It is classified as the major direction of
the flow in reference to the axis rotation.
Radial flow impellers
Axial flow impellers,
Mixed flow impellers,
Casing
it guides liquid to the impeller, collects liquid from
the impeller and slows (diffuse) it to a usable
velocity and thus converts the kinetic energy of the
liquid to the potential energy.
 Shaft
 The basic function of a shaft is to transmit the
torque encountered in the starting and during
operation while supporting the impeller and other
rotating parts. Shaft drives and supports the
impeller. Impellers are mounted on the shaft. It is a
media of transfer mechanical energy (rpm) to total
energy of the liquid.
Shaft sleeves
Sleeves protect the pump shaft from erosion,
corrosion, wears at stuffing boxes, leakage joints,
internal bearings and in the waterways.
 Stuffing box
 Stuffing boxes have primary function of protecting
the pump against leakage at the point where the
shaft passes out through the pump casing. Prevent
air leakage into the pump, prevent liquid leakage
out of the pump.
Bearing
Bearing gives the chance to move shaft freely. To
keep the shaft or rotor in correct alignment with the
stationary parts under the action of radial and
transvers load. Two types: line bearing (radial
positioning to the rotor) thrust bearing (rotate the rotor
axially)
 Seals
 It seals the opening where the shaft passes
through the pressure boundary. Types: stuffing
box seals, lip type oil seals.
Coupling
Centrifugal pumps are connected to their driver
through couplings. The principal purpose of coupling
is to transmit rotary motion and torque from one
piece of equipment to another.
Accommodate misalignment between shafts.
Transmit axial trust load to one machine to another.
Maintain precise alignment between connected shaft.
 Reciprocating pump
 The liquid is pump by decreasing the volume of the
it through reciprocating action of the moving
element and consequently increases the pressure
of the liquid.
 Rotary pump
Working principle
Positive displacement pumps: relative movement
between the rotating and stationary movement of the
pump. They are different by the main motion of the
moving element from the reciprocating positive
displacement pump.
Characteristics curves of centrifugal pumps
 Capacity (Q)
 Head (H)
 Power (P)
 Efficiency (η)
 Capacity
 The pump capacity is the volume of liquid per unit
time delivered by the pump. l/s; m3/s
 Pump Head/ pump total head/ total dynamic
head
 The net work done on a unit weight of liquid in
passing from the inlet or suction flange to discharge
flange.
 H = (P/d + V2/2g +Z)d - (P/d + V2/2g +Z)s
 The term P/d is pressure head, P is the pressure difference at
the surface of the liquid, d is the density of the liquid.
 The term V2/2g is velocity head, represent the kinetic energy
of unit weight of liquid with velocity V, g is gravitational
acceleration, 9.8 m/s2.
 The term Z is called elevation head or potential
head, represents the potential energy of a unit
weight of the liquid with respect to the chosen
datum
 Cavitation
 Is an important factor in satisfactory operation of
a pump is the avoidance of cavitation, both for
the sake of good efficiency and for the prevention
of impeller damage.
 Conditions within the pump where, owing to a
local pressure drop below the vapor pressure of
the liquid at the corresponding temperature,
cavities filled with water vapors are formed; the
cavities collapse as soon as the vapor bubbles
reach the region of high pressure on their way
through the pump.
 The suction pressure drop may be produced by
 An increase in the static lift of the centrifugal pump
 A decrease in the atmospheric pressure with a rise in
the altitude
 A decrease in the absolute pressure in the system, as
in the case of pumping from closed vessel
 An increase in the temperature of the pumping liquid
 An increase in velocity by speeding up the pump
 It may affect
 Noise and vibration
 Impeller vane pitting and corrosion fatigue failure of
metals and
 Drop in head vs capacity and efficiency curves.
 Net positive suction head (NPSH)
 To avoid cavitation, the pressure at the pump inlet
must be exceed the vapor pressure (Pv) of the
liquid at the corresponding temperature by a certain
value, called net positive suction head or NPSH.
 The net positive suction head or NPSH is the total
suction head less the vapor pressure of the liquid
expressed in feet (meters)
 NPSH >/= Hts-Pv
 Hts = (Patm + Pgs + Hvs – Hfs +/- Z )
 Hts = total suction head; Patm = atm. Press.; Pgs = Gag. Press. Hfs = Suction line
friction loss; Pv = vapor press. Of liquid at corresponding tem. Hvs = suction
velocity head; Z = suction elevation head.
 Power
 In United state customary system (USCS), the
pump output is customarily given as liquid
horsepower (lhp) or as water horsepower if water is
the liquid pumped,
 Lhp = QH (sp. Gr.)/3960
 Q is in gallons per minute, H is in feet, sp. Gr.
Specific gravity.
 If Q is in cubic feet per second,
 Lhp = QH (sp. Gr.)/8.82
 Efficiency
 The pump efficiency is the liquid horsepower
divided by the power input to the pump shaft.
The efficiency may be expressed as a decimal or
multiplied by 100 and expressed as percent.
Performances of a centrifugal
pump

 The theoretical maximum suction lift of a

pump = 10.33/ SG (meter) or 33.9/SG (ft)
 Practical maximum suction lift available
(MSLA) is also modified or reduced by
 Friction losses involved
 The effect of vapor pressure.
Mechanical losses
The friction in bearings, in stuffing box packings,
Leakage losses
Leakage from the tip of the impeller, back between the impeller and
casing, to the impeller suction.
Recirculation losses
The velocity of the liquid in the space between two adjacent vanes
of the impeller is different. The difference in velocity produces a
circulation of the liquid within the space between the vanes, and
such a circulation consumes power for no useful purpose.
Hydraulic losses
Friction between the liquid and casing
Liquid and faces of the vanes
Sudden change in direction (shock loss)
Selection of pump

 System rquirement
 System layout
 Fluid characteristics
 Code requirement
 Material of construction
 Type of service
 Running speed
Standard operating procedure (SOP)
 Inspection works before start up
 Pipe cleanliness
 Rotation
 sight gaze glasses
 lubricants
 pump exterior
 pump drive
 position of valve
 alignment
 pump bearing
 lube oil system
 regressing
 auxiliary piping
 priming
 Pre-start up check points
 Lubrication system of all bearing points must be
chacked
 Priming mover power should be chacked
 rotate the pump by hand
 level of liquid at suction side should be checked.
 discharge valve should be closed
 All flow control valve should be set according to
the instructions
 pump should be warmed gradually by slowly
circulating hot liquid through the pump.
 Start up procedures
 Suction valve should be opened.
 Priming should be performed properly.
 Recirculation valve should be opened.
 Liquid is bought into the pump by venting the casing.
 Suction line should full of liquid to be pumped.
 Direction of rotation should be checked by ON-OFF
switch.
 Pump should be started up with the aid of prime
mover.
 When pump reached at normal operating speed, open
the discharge valve slowly.
 Post start-up check points
 Process parameters (pressure, temperature, flow,
etc.)
 Temperature and vibration at all bearing points.

 Abnormal sound,

 Motor ampere,

 Seal leakage.

Check points during normal operation

Bearing temperature,
Suction and discharge pressure,
Lube oil temperature and pressure discharge flow.
Seal leakage
Oil level at all bearing points
Drive side energy consumption
 Shut down works
 Partially close the discharge valve.
 Shut off the power.
 As soon as the power is off, close the discharge
vale rapidly.