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CHM092
WEEK 4
State the properties and allowed values of the principal quantum number,
n, the angular momentum quantum number, l, the magnetic quantum
number, ml and the spin quantum number, ms.
Topic
2.1 Elements and Compounds
5
2.1 Elements and Compounds
2.1 Elements and Compounds
Classifying Elements & Compounds
• Atomic elements = elements whose particles
are single atoms
• Molecular elements = elements whose particles
are multi-atom molecules
• Molecular compounds = compounds whose
particles are molecules made of only nonmetals
• Ionic compounds = compounds whose particles
are cations and anions
2.1 Elements and Compounds
Atoms
are submicroscopic particles
are the fundamental building blocks of ordinary
matter
2.1 Elements and Compounds
Molecules
are two or more atoms attached together in a
specific geometrical arrangement
attachments are called bonds
attachments come in different strengths
come in different shapes and patterns
2.1 Elements and Compounds
Elements
•Most elements have single atoms as their
constituent particles
•The atoms may be physically attracted to each
other, but are not chemically bonded together
•A few elements have molecules as their
constituent particles
•The molecules are made of two or more atoms
chemically bonded together by covalent bonds
2.1 Elements and Compounds
Elements
Elements combine together to make an almost
limitless number of compounds
The properties of the compound are totally different
from the constituent elements
2.1 Elements and Compounds
7A
H2 N2 O2 F2
Cl2
Br2
I2
2.1 Elements and Compounds
2.1 Elements and Compounds
Compound
a substance composed of two or more
elements which are chemically combined.
2.1 Elements and Compounds
Compounds
•Some compounds are composed of ions
arranged in a 3-dimensional pattern – these are
called ionic compounds
–each cation is surrounded by anions, and vice-
versa
•Other compounds are composed of individual
molecule units
•Each molecule contains atoms of different
elements chemically attached by covalent
bonds
2.1 Elements and Compounds
Ionic vs. Molecular Compounds
The Electron
• •
If atom was like
• •
• • a plum pudding,
•
• • all the a particles
• •
• • should go
•
• • • straight through
• •
• •
•
2.2 Atomic Structure
Rutherford’s Results
A few of the
a particles Nuclear Atom
do not go through
. Almost all a particles
go straight through
.
Some a particles
. go through, but are deflected due to
+:+ repulsion from the nucleus
2.2 Atomic Structure
Rutherford’s Model of the Atom
2.2 Atomic Structure
Atomic
Atomic numbernumber
(Z) = number of(Z) = number
protons in nucleus of protons in
Mass number (A) = number ofnucleus
protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Mass number (A) = number of protons +
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their
numbernuclei of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) +
number of neutrons
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number and
Isotopes
Structure of the Nucleus
• Soddy discovered that the same element could have atoms
with different masses, which he called isotopes
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
– there are two isotopes of chlorine found in nature, one that has a
Mass number
mass(A)of=about
number35
of amu
protons
and+ number of neutrons
the other about 37 amu
• The observed = atomicmass
numberis(Z)a+ number of neutrons
weighted average of the weights
of allarethe
Isotopes naturally
atoms occurring
of the same element (X) atoms
with different numbers of neutrons in their
– the percentage of an element
nuclei
that is one isotope is called the
isotope’s natural abundance
– the atomic mass of chlorine is 35.45 amu
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number and
Isotopes
Isotopes
• All isotopes of an element are chemically identical
– number
Atomic undergo the exact
(Z) = number same
of protons chemical reactions
in nucleus
•Mass
Allnumber
isotopes of an of
(A) = number element have the
protons + number same number of
of neutrons
protons = atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
• Isotopes
Isotopes of an
are atoms element
of the have
same element (X)different masses
with different numbers of neutrons in their
• Isotopes of an element have nuclei
different numbers of
neutrons
• Isotopes are identified by their mass numbers, which is
the sum of all the protons and neutrons in the nucleus
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number and
Isotopes
Isotopes
Percent
Number of Number of A, Mass Natural
Symbol Protons Neutrons Number Abundance
Ne-20 or 20
10 Ne 10 10 20 90.48%
21Ne
Ne-21 or 10 10 11 21 0.27%
22 Ne
Ne-22 or 10 10 12 22 9.25%
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number and
Isotopes
Isotopes
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number and
Isotopes
• Atomic number
Number of protons= 92
Z
• Mass Number
Protons + neutrons = 235
whole number
A
• Abundance = relative
amount found in a sample
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number and
Isotopes
Exercise 3 – Complete the table
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number and
Isotopes
Practice – Complete the table
13
6C
96
42Mo
27
13 Al
133
55 Cs
47
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number and
Isotopes
Exercise 4 : The natural abundance of 3He is 0.000137%
2
S
Mg2
3
Al
Br
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number and
Isotopes
n
When n increases, the
spacing between energy
m levels becomes smaller
k
2.4 Quantum Mechanics
Electron Transitions
• To transition to a higher energy state, the electron
must gain the correct amount of energy
corresponding to the difference in energy between
the final and initial states
n = 1, l = 0
n = 2, l = 0 or 1
n = 3, l = 0, 1, or 2
l = 0 (s orbitals)
2.4 Quantum Mechanics
Angular Momentum Quantum Number, l
l = 1 (p orbitals)
2.4 Quantum Mechanics
Angular Momentum Quantum Number, l
l = 2 (d orbitals)
2.4 Quantum Mechanics
Magnetic Quantum Number, ml
• The magnetic quantum number is an integer that
specifies the orientation of the orbital
– the direction in space the orbital is aligned relative to
the other orbitals
• Values of ml are integers from −l to +l including
zero
2.4 Quantum Mechanics
Magnetic Quantum Number, ml
for a given value of l
ml = -l, …., 0, …. +l
if l = 1 (p orbital), ml = -1, 0, or 1
if l = 2 (d orbital), ml = -2, -1, 0, 1, or 2
ms = +½ or -½
ms = +½ ms = -½
2.4 Quantum Mechanics
Energy Shells and Subshells
Atomic
orbital
1s 2s, 2px, 2py, 2pz 3s, 3px, 3py, 3pz 3dyz, 3dxy,
designations 3dxz,
3(dx2-y2),
3dz2
Example 1: What are the quantum numbers and names
(for example, 2s, 2p) of the orbitals in the
n = 4 principal level? How many orbitals exist?
Given: n = 4
Find: orbital designations, number of orbitals
Conceptual n l ml
Plan:
0 → (n − 1) −l → +l
Relationships: l: 0 → (n − 1); ml: −l → +l
Solve: n=4
l : 0, 1, 2, 3
PLAN: Values of l are determined from the value for n, since l can take
values from 0 to (n-1). The values of ml then follow from the
values of l.
PLAN: Combine the n value and l designation to name the sublevel. Knowing
l, we can find ml and the number of orbitals.
SOLUTION:
n l sublevel namepossible ml values # of orbitals
(b) 2 0 2s 0 1
(c) 5 1 5p -1, 0, 1 3
(a) 1 1 0 1p
(b) 4 3 +1 4d
(c) 3 1 -2 3p
SOLUTION:
(a) A sublevel with n = 1 can only have l = 0, not l = 1. The only possible
sublevel name is 1s.
(b) A sublevel with l = 3 is an f sublevel, to a d sublevel. The name
should be 4f.
(c) A sublevel with l = 1 can only have ml values of -1, 0, or +1, not -2.
Topic
WEEK 5
l = 2, d orbitals
• Principal energy level where n = 3 or greater has five d
orbitals
– ml = −2, − 1, 0, +1, +2
• Four of the five orbitals are aligned in a different plane
– dxy, dyz, dxz, dx2 – y2
– the fifth is aligned with the z axis, dz2
• Mainly four-lobed
– one is two-lobed with a donut-shaped ring along the xy plane
3d orbitals
3d orbitals
3d orbitals
2.5 The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
l = 3, f orbitals
Orbital Diagrams
The electron configuration is a listing of the sublevels in order of filling with the
number of electrons in that sublevel written as a superscript.
Orbital diagrams make use of a box, circle, or line for each orbital in the energy
level. An arrow is used to represent an electron and its spin.
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
2.6 Electron Configurations and Orbital
Diagram
number of electrons in
the orbital
1s1
principal energy level of
orbital occupied by the sublevel of orbital
electron occupied by the
electron
Order of Sublevel Filling in Ground
State Electron Configurations
Start by drawing a diagram
putting each energy shell on a
row and listing the sublevels, (s,
p, d, f), for that shell in order of
energy (left-to-right)
n=3
n=2
1
En = -RH ( n2 )
n=1
125
Energy of orbitals in a multi-electron atom
Energy depends on n and l
n=3 l = 2
n=3 l = 1
n=3 l = 0
n=2 l = 1
n=2 l = 0
n=1 l = 0
126
“Fill up” electrons in lowest energy orbitals
(Aufbau principle)
The most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells is the
one with the greatest number of parallel spins (Hund’s rule).
• No two electrons in an atom may have the same set of four
quantum numbers (n, l, ml, ms)
• Therefore the exclusion principle states that each orbital
may contain a maximum of 2 electrons, which must have
opposite spins.
A horizontal orbital
↑↓ ↑
Li (Z = 3) 1s2, 2s1 diagram for the Li
ground state.
1s 2s
A vertical orbital
diagram for the Li
ground state.
Quantum Numbers of Electrons for helium
• Helium has two electrons
• Both electrons are in the first energy level
• Both electrons are in the s orbital of the first energy level
• Because they are in the same orbital, they must have
opposite spins
Example 2: What is the maximum number of electrons
that can be present in the principal level for which n =
3?
Strategy We are given the principal quantum number (n) so
we can determine all the possible values of the angular
momentum quantum number (ℓ). The preceding rule shows
that the number of orbitals for each value of ℓ is (2 ℓ + 1). Thus,
we can determine the total number of orbitals. How many
electrons can each orbital accommodate?
PLAN: Identify the electron of interest and note its level (n), sublevel,
(l), orbital (ml) and spin (ms). Count the electrons in the order in
which they are placed in the diagram.
SOLUTION:
F (Z = 9) 1s22s22p3 ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
1s 2s 2p
For the 3rd electron: n = 2, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = +½
3d
4s
Energy
3p
Notice the following:
3s 1. because of penetration, sublevels within an
energy level are not degenerate
2p 2. penetration of the 4th and higher energy levels is
so strong that their s sublevel is lower in energy
2s than the d sublevel of the previous energy level
3. the energy difference between levels becomes
smaller for higher energy levels (and can cause
anomalous electron configurations for certain
elements)
1s
Example 3 — Write the full ground state
electron configuration of carbon
1s sublevel : 2e
2s sublevel : 2e
2p sublevel : 2e
Al (Z = 13) 1s22s22p63s23p1
↑↓ ↑
3s 3p
*Colored type indicates the sublevel to which the last electron is added.
2.6 Electron Configurations and Orbital
Diagram
Electron Configuration and
Group
Elements in the same group of the periodic table have the
same outer electron configuration.
5s 4d 5p
5s 4d
2.7 Electron Configurations, Valence
Electrons and Periodic Table
The order in which the orbitals are filled can be obtained directly
from the periodic table.
Electron Configuration from
the Periodic Table
1A 8A
1 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
2
Ne
3
4 3s2 P
5 3p3
6
7
P = [Ne]3s23p3
P has five valence electrons
2.7 Electron Configurations, Valence
Electrons and Periodic Table
Transition Elements
Zn
Z = 30, Period 4, Group 2B
4s 3d
[Ar]4s23d10
Electron Configuration from
the Periodic Table
1A 8A
1 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
2
3
4 3d10 Ar
5 4s2 As
6
4p3
7
As = [Ar]4s23d104p3
As has five valence electrons
2.7 Electron Configurations, Valence
Electrons and Periodic Table
Irregular Electron Configurations
• We know that because of sublevel splitting, the 4s
sublevel is lower in energy than the 3d; and therefore
the 4s fills before the 3d
• But the difference in energy is not large
• Some of the transition metals have irregular electron
configurations in which the ns only partially fills before
the (n−1)d or doesn’t fill at all
• Their electron configuration has stability associated
with half-filled or completely filled subshell.
2.7 Electron Configurations, Valence
Electrons and Periodic Table
Anomalous Electron Configurations
Half-filled or full
Expected subshells
• Cr = [Ar]4s23d4 • Cr = [Ar]4s13d5
• Cu = [Ar]4s23d9 • Cu = [Ar]4s13d10
• Mo = [Kr]5s24d4 • Mo = [Kr]5s14d5
• Pd = [Kr]5s24d8 • Pd = [Kr]5s04d10
2.7 Electron Configurations, Valence
Electrons and Periodic Table
Partial Orbital Diagrams and Electron Configurations* for the
Elements in Period 4.
*Colored type indicates the sublevel to which the last electron is added.
2.7 Electron Configurations, Valence
Electrons and Periodic Table
Partial Orbital Diagrams and Electron Configurations* for the
Elements in Period 4.
*Colored type indicates the sublevel to which the last electron is added.
2.7 Electron Configurations, Valence
Electrons and Periodic Table
Properties & Electron
Configuration
WEEK 6
• 1. Shielding
• 2. Effective nuclear charge
2.8 Periodic Trends in the Size of Atoms
and Effective Nuclear Charge
Factors affecting atomic radius
• The energies of atomic orbitals are affected by
– nuclear charge (Z) and
– shielding by other electrons.
• A higher nuclear charge increases nucleus-electron
interactions and lowers sublevel energy.
• Shielding by other electrons reduces the full nuclear
charge to an effective nuclear charge (Zeff).
– Zeff is the nuclear charge an electron actually experiences.
• Orbital shape also affects sublevel energy.
The effect of nuclear charge on sublevel energy.
Na 11 10 1 186
Mg 12 10 2 160
Al 13 10 3 143
Si 14 10 4 132
2.8 Periodic Trends in the Size of Atoms
and Effective Nuclear Charge
Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff)
increasing Zeff
increasing Zeff
Topic
2.8 Ions: Magnetic Properties,
Ionic Radii and Ionization
Energy
2.8 Ions: Magnetic Properties, Ionic Radii
and Ionization Energy
Trends in Ionic Radius
• Ions in same group have same charge
• S or S2−
– S2− is larger because there are more electrons (18 e−) for the 16
protons to hold
– the anion is larger than the neutral atom
• Ca or Ca2+
– Ca is larger because its valence shell has been lost from Ca2+
– the cation is always smaller than the neutral atom
• Br− or Kr
– the Br− is larger because it has fewer protons (35 p+) to hold the 36
electrons than does Kr (36 p+)
– for isoelectronic species, the more negative the charge the larger
the atom or ion
Exercise 16 – Order the following sets by size
(smallest to largest)
I−, Br−, Ga3+, In+ Ga3+ < In+ < Br− < I−
2.8 Ions: Magnetic Properties, Ionic Radii
and Ionization Energy
Ionization Energy
• Minimum energy needed to remove an electron from an
atom or ion
gas state
endothermic process
valence electron easiest to remove, lowest IE
M(g) + IE1 M1+(g) + 1 e-
M+1(g) + IE2 M2+(g) + 1 e-
first ionization energy = energy to remove electron
from neutral atom; 2nd IE = energy to remove from
1+ ion; etc.
2.8 Ions: Magnetic Properties, Ionic Radii
and Ionization Energy
General Trends in 1st Ionization Energy
• The larger the effective nuclear charge on the
electron, the more energy it takes to remove it
• The farther the most probable distance the electron
is from the nucleus, the less energy it takes to
remove it
• 1st IE decreases down the group
– valence electron farther from nucleus
• 1st IE generally increases across the period
– effective nuclear charge increases
209
Periodicity of first ionization energy (IE1).
2.8 Ions: Magnetic Properties, Ionic Radii
and Ionization Energy
• Mg or P
• Ag or Cu
• Ca or Rb
• P or Se ?
2.8 Ions: Magnetic Properties, Ionic Radii
and Ionization Energy
Exceptions in the 1st IE Trends
• First Ionization Energy generally increases from
left to right across a Period
• Except from 2A to 3A, 5A to 6A
Be N
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p
B O
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p
B B+
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p
When you ionize B you get a full sublevel, costs less energy
2.8 Ions: Magnetic Properties, Ionic Radii
and Ionization Energy
Exceptions in the
First Ionization Energy Trends,
N and O
N N+
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p
O O+
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p
Ag (Z = 47) ↑ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
5s 4d 5p
4s 3d 4p
Ti2+ ↑ ↑
4s 3d 4p
Ti2+ has 2 unpaired electrons and is paramagnetic,
providing evidence that the 4s electrons are lost
before the 3d electrons.
Exercise 18 Writing Electron Configurations and
Predicting Magnetic Behavior of Transition
Metal Ions
SOLUTION:
Electron Affinity
• Electron Affinity (EA) is the energy change
that occurs when 1 mol of electrons is added
to 1 mol of gaseous atoms or ions.
gas state
M(g) + 1e− M1−(g) + EA
• The more energy that is released, the larger the
electron affinity, the more stable is the ion.
the more negative the number, the larger the EA
2.8 Electron Affinities, Electronegativity
and Metallic Character
Electronegativity
• Electronegativity of an element is a value used to
indicate the ability of an atom to attract electrons to
itself when the atom is sharing electrons with
(covalently bonded to) atom of another element
• Trends in electronegativity are similar to those for
electron affinity.
EN value decreases from top to bottom within a group
EN value increases from left to right across a period
Electronegativity (EN) Values for Representative Elements
Group 1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
Period
1 H
2.1
2 Li Be B C N O F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0
4 K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br
0.8 1.0 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.8
5 Rb Sr I
0.8 1.0 2.5
6 Cs Ba
0.7 0.9
Electronegativity Scale
2.8 Electron Affinities, Electronegativity
and Metallic Character
Metallic Character
• Metallic character is how closely an element’s properties
match the ideal properties of a metal
– more malleable and ductile, better conductors, and easier to ionize
• Metallic character decreases left-to-right across a period
– metals are found at the left of the period and nonmetals are to the
right
• Metallic character increases down the column
– nonmetals are found at the top of the middle Main Group elements
and metals are found at the bottom
Example 7 : Choose the
more metallic element in each pair
1. Sn or Te,
Te Sn is farther left
2. P or Sb
Sb, Sb is farther down
3. Ge or In
In, In is farther down & left
4. S or Br? opposing trends
2.8 Electron Affinities, Electronegativity
and Metallic Character
• Si or Sn
• Br or Te
• Se or I ?
Trends in the Alkali Metals
• Atomic radius increases down the column
• Ionization energy decreases down the column
• Very low ionization energies
– good reducing agents, easy to oxidize
– very reactive, not found uncombined in nature
– react with nonmetals to form salts
– compounds generally soluble in water found in seawater
• Electron affinity decreases down the column
• Melting point decreases down the column
– all very low MP for metals
• Density increases down the column
– except K
– in general, the increase in mass is greater than the increase in
volume
Alkali Metals
2.8 Electron Affinities, Electronegativity
and Metallic Character
Thank You.
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