Generators

Topics
• Types of generators
• Main components, their significance
• Important parameters, characteristics
• Generator specifications
• Speed governor
• Parallel operation of generators
• Voltage regulation and power factor control
• Generator power management
• Generator protection
Cont…
 Topics
• Generator failure modes
• Winding Insulation testing and interpretation
– Insulation resistance
– Dielectric strength
– Tan delta
• Winding resistance testing
• Infrared Thermography
• Partial discharge testing
• Vibration analysis
 Types of Generators
• Based on construction
– Salient pole generator
– Turbo generator
• Based on Prime mover
– Engine generator
– Gas turbine generator
– Steam turbine generator
– Hydro turbine generator
 Types of Synchronous Machines
Salient pole machine
• Winding concentrated in
rotor poles
• Non-uniform air gap
between stator and rotor
• Applications - Hydro-
alternator, Engine-
alternator
Types of Synchronous Machines (cont…)

Non-salient pole machine

• Winding is distributed on rotor
• Uniform air gap between rotor
and stator
• Also called turbo alternator or
turbo generator
 Generator Components
• Stator (Armature) – Accommodates three phase
windings surrounding the rotor
• Rotor – Rotated by prime mover to generate
voltage through relative motion between rotor
magnetic field and stator conductors
• Exciter/field – Produce magnetic field with DC
supply derived from exciter
Schematic – Generator Electrical Circuit
 Stator
• Stacked high permeability, low loss, laminated NGRO
sheets insulated with heat resistant coating
• LV windings made of wound enameled copper wire,
class H insulation
• MV windings made of “form wound” rectangular
copper conductors, insulated with multiple layers of
glass-fibre reinforced mica-tape
 Rotor
• Salient pole – Laminated construction
• Non-salient pole – Solid core construction
• Damper winding on pole faces for parallel
operation, dampen harmonics
• Excitation winding made of flat or round wire,
insulation class F or class H
• Insulated from active iron by multi-layer surface
insulation material
• Balanced dynamically with inserted half key
Construction Features
Salient Pole Rotor

Damper bars
 Salient Pole Rotor
• Projecting poles at rotor circumference
• Poles bolted/dovetailed to rotor magnetic body
• Large diameters, short axial lengths
• Laminated poles and pole shoes
• Field windings wound around salient poles
• Mostly used in slow speed machines
• Pole shoes provided with damper bars
 Cylindrical Rotor

• Poles flush with rotor circumference

• Smooth solid forged steel with slots milled out at periphery for
accommodating field windings
• Small diameter, long axial length
• Field windings embedded inside rotor
• Used in high speed machines (Gas, steam turbines)
 Prime Mover Features
Type Output Typical Fuels Typical Heat to Heat
Range Power Ratio Output
0.5MW to Any, but used for
Steam Turbine 3:1 to 10:1 Medium
600MW producing steam
0.5MW to Natural gas, Liquified 1.6:1 up to 5:1
Gas Turbine High
250MW Gas, Biogas, Mine gas with after firing
Compression 1:1 to 1.5:1 up to
Upto 20 Natural gas with diesel Low and
ignition 2.5:1 with after
MW oil, Heavy fuel oil High
engines firing
Up to Natural gas, Landfill Low and
Spark Ignition 1:1 to 1.7:1
4MW gas, Biogas, Mine gas High
Heat Recovery 1MW to
Same as gas turbine Down to 0.7:1 Meduim
gas turbines 100MW
 Gas Turbine

• Stand alone capacities to 250 MW

• Low space requirements but highly capital intensive
• Operate at high rpm with generator coupled to
reduction gear box
 Gas Turbine Generator
• Main components
– Air Compressor
– Combustion chamber
– Turbine
– Electrical generator
– Starting motor
• Fuels
– Oil in gasified form
– Gasoline
– Natural gas
– Propane gas
– Coal in gasified form
 Gas Turbine Generator - Advantages
• Low installation cost
• Modular construction
• Simple mechanical transmission
• Short manufacturing cycle, delivery time
• Adaptability for complete automation
• Quick start
• Quick load pickup
• Low emission levels (environmental friendly)
• Usability of heat recovered from exhaust gases
(preheat water for steam boiler)
 Engine Generator
• Compression Ignition heavy fuel engine
• Diesel power plants use compressed air to
ignite fuel which is sustained thereafter unless
interrupted
• Require planned maintenance which can
ensure 90~95% availability
 Engine Generator - Advantages
• Faster installation time
• Quick start up when needed
• Frequency control with governor control
• Higher reliability and availability
• Easier maintenance
• Comparatively lower capital cost
• Adaptability to different fuels including bio
fuels
Parameters and Characteristics of
Synchronous Generator
 Speed, Poles and Frequency
• Frequency (f) - Number of cycles per second
– Related to speed & number of poles
f = (P × N)/120
 Frequency, Voltage and Load
Interrelated with each other
• Excessive load Drop in frequency, voltage
• System frequency – Varies with generator
speed
• System voltage – Varies with excitation of
generator
V-curve of Synchronous Generator
Generator Capability Curve
Generator Reactive Power Capability Curve
Over Excitation Capability Curve
 Generator Specifications
• Voltage with tolerance %
• 3ph, 4 wire
• Frequency
• RPM
• Continuous output rating at specified PF
• Altitude
• Ambient temperature
• Percentage impedance
 Generator specifications
• Excitation
• Voltage regulation
• Insulation class
• IP protection
 Generator Speed Control
• To maintain proper speed regulation and load division
for generating units of power system
• Types of Control
– Isochronous Control: Constant speed with load
– Droop Control: Speed drops with increase in load
 Isochronous (Constant Speed) Control
• Refers to prime mover governor speed control mode
that controls frequency (speed) generator
• Energy admitted to prime mover is regulated very
tightly in response to changes in load which tend to
cause changes in frequency (speed)
• Any increase in load tends to reduce frequency, but
energy is quickly admitted to prime mover to maintain
frequency at set-point
• Any decrease in load tends to increase frequency, but
energy is quickly reduced to prime mover to maintain
frequency at set-point
Isochronous (Constant Speed) Control
• Operation of unit isolated from power system
• Adjusts speed to reference frequency set point
• Important to maintain system frequency at rated
level
• Applied normally to small electrical grid
• One machine is usually operated in Isochronous
Speed Control mode, and any other smaller
generators connected to grid are operated in Droop
Speed Control mode
• Only one machine can have its governor operating in
Isochronous Speed Control mode for stable grid
frequency control when multiple units are operated
in parallel
 Droop Control - Speed drops with
increase in Load
• Governor of prime mover does not attempt to control
frequency (speed) of generator
• Acts as load controller - Smoothly control production of
torque when connected in parallel with other generators
• On very large electrical grids (Infinite) no single generator is
capable of controlling grid frequency – All prime movers
operated in Droop Speed Control mode
• Prevents one generator from taking up entire additional
load
• Load gets shared among units
• Increased stability
Droop Characteristics
 Generator Speed Droop

• Typical values for speed droop are in the range 2% - 4%

• Power from generator can be found using

• where
• Slope sp is often quoted in kW/Hz or MW/Hz
Droop Control Principle
 Prime Mover Governor
• Controls prime mover speed
• Directly affects real load (watt) sharing
characteristics
• Type:
– Isochronous load sharing type
– Speed droop type
• Governor will typically hold steady state speed
within ±2.5%
 Prime Mover Governor
• Controls fuel inlet valve or fuel pump for
proportional control, which regulates speed
(generator frequency) and power generated
• Directly affects real load (watt) sharing
characteristics
• Governor will typically hold steady state speed
within specified limits
 Prime Mover Governor
• Uses mechanical and hydraulic signals for regulating
fuel rack position to control speed
• Coupled to generator shaft to obtain speed input signal
• Can also obtain speed signal by non contact
transducers
• Can provide electrical output signal for speed control
• Mechanical back-up in event of electronic failure
 Governor Control
• Only one generator set in isochronous mode to
provide frequency reference for System
• Other units connected in droop mode to avoid
conflict, excessive loading and unloading between
units
• Droop mode used universally for generators
connected in large Power System
• Isochronous mode not effective in large power
systems
 Prime Mover Governor
(Electronic Speed Control)
• Consists of Speed control unit, Actuator
• Speed control unit:
– Prime mover speed monitored by non-contact magnetic
pickup on shaft
– Sensor output signal freq. proportional to shaft speed
– Provides output to actuator based on input speed signal
and reference
• Actuator
– Changes fuel rack position based on electrical signal
received from speed control unit
Parallel Operation Between Generators
 Parallel Operation Between Generators
• Multiple source power system - Two or more
generators supplying power to common electric
network
• To increase available power
• Run in synchronism with each other
• Performance of every generator affects performance of
others
• Synchronizing current due to vector difference between
voltages
Parallel Operation Between Generators
• To provide reliable power to critical loads
• Obtain permission from Utility if need to operate in
parallel with Utility
• Provide necessary synchronizing devices, protective
relays (Reverse power relay, Vector surge relay etc)
Parallel Operation Between Generators
• Power flow patterns, transient behavior more
complex
• Total active (real) power generated = Total active
power consumed by loads
• Active load sharing – Function of Prime mover and
governor setting
• Reactive load sharing – excitation levels and rated
MVA
 Parallel Modes of Operation
• Island parallel mode
– Generators sharing a common load, higher than
capacity of a single set

• Grid parallel mode

– One or more sets sharing with grid a load higher
than combined capacity of operating generator sets
 Generator Parallel Operation - Basic
Requirements
• Same voltage rating for all generator sets
• Same voltage rating for generator set and grid
supply at point of connection
• Same frequency rating for all generators
• Same frequency rating for generators and grid
supply
• Same phase sequence for all generators,
Utility
 Load Sharing Between Sources
Isochronous Load Sharing
• Mode of parallel connected generators - Frequency
of generation independent of load
• Share load proportionally while operating
isochronously
• Monitor generator power output, modulate fuel to
engine to produce equal/ proportionate load sharing
• Load sensor with basic electro-hydraulic or electronic
speed governor
Isochronous Operation, Load Sharing
Isochronous Load Sharing
(Electronic Governors)
 Isochronous Operation, Load Sharing
• Droop of one generator, set lower than other
generators
• Requires careful adjustment of initial load on
operating sets besides limiting magnitude of
subsequent load changes
 Parallel Operation - Difficulties
• Load sharing difference due to difference in
prime mover and generator response
• Load division difficult if any machine is
derated
• Fall in system frequency with variation in load
• Problem in locations with frequency sensitive
loads
 Load Sharing Between Sources
Droop Load Sharing
• Prime mover of generator provided with droop
setting
• Speed reduces along predetermined slope with
increase in load
• When generator load increases, speed reduces by
droop setting, transferring load to other generators
• Droop expressed as % change in speed
corresponding to change from zero to full power
output
 Load Sharing Between Sources
Droop Load Sharing
• Power output of each generator determined by
– Bus frequency
– Respective prime mover speed setting and
– Droop setting
• Proportional load sharing - Droop or regulation of each
generator should be identical to others
• Generally 5% droop to enhance system stability
• Generally provides proportionate load sharing within 20% of
respective prime mover power rating
• May be used where speed regulation need not be better than
3 to 5%
 Load Sharing Between Sources
Reactive load sharing
• A function of automatic voltage regulator, depends on
voltage droop setting
• Droop in voltage-load essential for proper kVAR sharing
during parallel operation
• Normal droop setting at voltage regulator: 2% ~ 3% of
normal voltage
• Without voltage droop, alternator may trip due to:
– Generator may draw max kVAR share causing over current
– Reverse kVAR
 Load Sharing Between Sources
Reactive load sharing
• Current transformer known as quadrature droop
current transformer (QDCT)
• Senses changes in load current, enables AVR to
maintain required voltage droop proportional to load
current and hence PF
• QDCT O/P disabled during solo island operation to
permit AVR to function in constant voltage mode
Generator – Island-Parallel Operation
Generators with same capacities
• Total power demand exceeds individual generator
capacity
• Proper kW sharing, stable operation depends on
Speed-Load characteristics of governor
• Drooping Speed-Load characteristics (3% to 4%)
• Active load sharing between individual machines with
identical Speed-Load characteristics is equal
• Generator with lower droop assumes more load
 Generator – Island Parallel Operation
• Generators with different capacities but identical
Speed-Load characteristics
– Active load sharing proportional to ratings
• Generators if unequal ratings, dissimilar Speed-Load
characteristics
– Share load only at a speed at which their speed/
load characteristics intersect (Unstable at any
other speed)
Paralleling Generators of Different Capacities
• Loads shared in proportion to respective capacities
to avoid overloads
• Droop control – Prime movers regulated so that
their speeds are proportional to load taken by
generator
 Load Sharing Between Generators
• Electrical load determined by measuring inter-
phase voltage and current drawn from generator
• Proportional DC voltage applied to summing
point, compared with speed signal derived from
magnetic pick-up on shaft
• Resultant output provides drive signal for prime
mover fuel actuator through amplifier
Droop Circuit For Speed Control
 Droop Circuit For Speed Control
• Isochronous control of several generators may
be accomplished by disconnecting droop adjust
resistor and connecting the voltage developed
across this point to the same point in other
generators connected to bus
• Load shared may be directly proportional to
relative capacities of connected generators
 Island Operation
• Generator not connected to a Utility network
• Voltage, frequency controlled by control system of
Generator plant
• Voltage/ Frequency maintained within 0.5% of nominal
value under steady load conditions
• Full load operating range from 0.95 leading to 0.8
lagging
• Generator can be used for reactive power
compensation
 Parallel Island Operation
• No kW/kVAR reference signals provided for
operation
• kW regulator receives signal proportional to
common bus frequency in addition to signal
proportional to actual load
• kVar regulator receives signal proportional to
common bus voltage and signal proportional to
reactive load
 Parallel Island Operation
• kW regulator maintains speeds of all generators with
a common droop setting
• Same time maintains load sharing according to
capacities determined by set points
• kVAR, PF regulator maintains voltage of bus bar
constant
• Ensures kVAR shared is in proportion to load supplied
and PF is in stable region
Parallel Operation of Site Generator with
Utility
 Parallel Operation of Site Generator
with Utility
• Provides uninterruptible power supply to critical
loads
• Obtain permission from Utility
• Provide necessary synchronizing, protective
relays (Reverse power relay, Vector surge relay
etc)
Parallel operation between site generator and
Utility
• Power either drawn from Utility (imported power) or is
delivered to Utility (exported power)
• Power supplied to site loads by generator in event of
disturbance/ failure in Utility power
• Power used from Utility in event of problem in site
generator
 Parallel Operation Requirements
• Correct operation for faults in external system
• Asynchronous closing prevention both in internal and
external circuits
• Operation of generators under external system
abnormalities
• Load management under isolated condition
• Additional fault feeding capacity due to in-plant
generation
• Plant distribution system grounding
 Pros and Cons of Parallel Operation with
Utility
Advantages
• Improved reliability of power supply to critical loads
• Export of surplus power to Utility
Disadvantages
• Disturbances in Utility power impact on supply to site loads
• Immediate isolation of site generators during serious
disturbances/ power failure in Utility grid
– To protect critical loads
– To prevent generator damage due to reclosing at utility grid
• Reliable, fast acting protection relays must for protection
• Load shedding scheme to shed non critical loads
 Avoiding Site Generator collapse due to
External Events
• Need careful attention to prevent collapse of site
generator due to Utility disturbances
• Disturbances of Utility grid
– Under voltage (due to fault occurrence)
– Over voltage (due to sudden removal of huge load)
– Under frequency (due to system overload)
– Over frequency (due to sudden removal of huge load)
– Grid power failure (due to failure of generating station)
– Fault in grid
 Avoiding Site Generator collapse due to
External Events
• Utility power failure (e.g. Fault)
• Need immediate isolation of site generator
– Sudden large external load thrust on site generator
– Unsynchronized power imposed on site generator during
reclosing
• Reliable and fast sensing protection devices to isolate
site generator
– Sudden system freq. drop detected by df/dt electronic
relay
– Failure of Utility power detected by vector surge relay
– Disturbances due to grid faults detected by over-current
cum directional earth fault relays
Behavior of Site Generator for External
Fault
 External System Abnormalities
• Reaction of site generator to problems in Utility
grid
• Sudden additional external loads on generator
• Generator may go out of step
• Disconnect plant system at a pre- determined
point
• Tripping on sustained frequency/Rate of
frequency change protection
 Generator in Grid Parallel Operation
• Generators of equal/ unequal capacities can
be operated in parallel with grid
• To supplement power available from Grid
 Generators in Grid Parallel Operation
• Auto mode for control of generator
• Maximum operating load of generator selected
as reference signal
• kW transducer provides actual kW signal
• kW regulator regulates power at constant value
irrespective of variations in grid frequency
 Generators in Grid Parallel Operation
• kVAR transducer provides generator kVAR
output signal
• kVAR set point selected as reference based on
desired PF for operation
• kVAR regulation controls kVAR generation based
on set point and actual values
 Generators in Grid Parallel Operation
• Stable Grid condition – Continued supply of
active/reactive loads by adjustment of settings
• Fluctuating Grid condition:
• Generator active O/P power varies with grid frequency
– Increases with reduced Grid frequency
– Decreases with increased Grid frequency
• Generator reactive O/P power varies with grid voltage
– Increases with reduced Grid voltage
– Decreases with increased Grid voltage
– Can cause generator trips due to reverse kVAR
 Parallel Grid Operation
• Automatic kW regulation
– Measures real power O/P of generator, compares with set
value
– Controls generator frequency depending on grid frequency
variation
• Automatic PF regulation
– Normally set to operate generator in lagging PF
– Controls AVR to adjust voltage depending on grid voltage
variation
• Automatic kW, PF regulation to control power, PF
irrespective of grid conditions
 Parallel Grid Operation
Automatic kW regulation
• If consumer power demand becomes less than kW set
value, generator will inject power into grid (Not
desirable)
• Directional power relays to isolate grid
• Make automatic kW, PF regulation inoperative
• Load demand and PF determined by nature of
operating load
• Make be necessary to isolate PF improvement
capacitor banks
 Parallel Grid Operation
Grid failure during grid parallel operation
• Total load gets transferred to site generators
• Site generators trip due to overload
• Protection – Grid sensing relay/ df/dt relay, controls to
isolate grid, tripping non essential loads
• Interlocks to:
– Deactivate automatic kW and PF regulators
– Disconnect PF correction capacitors
– Prevent accidental closing of grid breaker during restoration
of grid supply
 Utility Stipulations and Local Codes
• Design of power generation installations meant for
connection to Utility - To be done by personnel with
engineering competence, thorough knowledge of
effect of linked generation sources with Utility grid
• Factors to be considered in design
– Safety of personnel
– Voltage control
– Import/ Export limits for power
– Synchronizing and islanding provisions, methods
– Metering systems
– Fault levels
 Utility Stipulations and Local Codes
• Need approval from utility for linking generators with
utility grid
• Generator owner's distribution system should comply
with statutory and regulatory requirements
– Standards, Regulations and statutory requirements
pertaining to generating set installations
– Customer connection contract
 Utility stipulations and local Codes
• Should have islanding protection - Disconnect site
generators from Utility during:
– Loss of supply from Utility
– Exceeding agreed limits of real or reactive power
– Generator going out of step
• Shall monitor installation to adequately safeguard
personnel, public and protect the network
 Utility Stipulations and Local Codes
• Generator owner shall comply with quality
requirements of Utility
• Utility may disconnect generator installation
from network if :
– Equipment is unsafe to personnel
– Connection with generator system is detrimental to
integrity of Utility grid
 Utility Stipulations and Local Codes
• Operation during agreed time periods with
agreed stipulations on import/ export of power
• Ensuring reliability, integrity and safe operation
of network are not compromised
• All protection equipment shall comply with
prescribed standards
• Protection settings, schemes shall comply and
be approved by Utility, shall have satisfactory
coordination with Utility's protection equipment
 Synchronising of Generators
Factors to be satisfied for paralleling:
• Phase sequence should be same
• Voltage magnitudes should be equal
• Frequency should be equal
• Voltages should be in phase (Danger of severe
damage, safety hazard if not in phase)
Parallel Operation Between Generators
Synchronization achieved by:
• Synchroscope
• Lamps – Bright lamp, dark lamp methods
• Sychro-check relay
• Automatic synchroniser
• Must have compatible governors and
generator regulators
 Synchronisation
Two bright lamps, one dark lamp Method

Voltages during Synchronization

 Synchronisation – Synchroscope
Method
• Similar to power factor meter
• Measures phase relationship between generator -
busbar voltages
• Moving element - Vanes at 120 degrees, free to rotate
continuously
• Rotates when frequencies are different, speed
depends on difference. Direction depends on which
frequency is faster
• Holds fixed position when frequencies exactly same,
in phase
Sychroscope
Synchronisation – Synchroscope Method
Double Frequency, Double Volt meter for
Synchronising
 Synchro-check Relay
• Compares generated power and bus
– Phase angle
– Frequency and/or
– Voltage
• Permits paralleling when both parameters are within
tolerance range
Synchro-check Relay (Courtesy: Alstom)
 Prevention of Asynchronous Closing
• Loss of Utility power may cause change in
frequency
– Depends on point of tripping
– Depends on balance between generation and load
• Inadvertent closing under asynchronous
condition
– No auto recloser on the Utility circuit
– Check synchronising at sending end
 Paralleling Operation
• Manual paralleling
– Needs knowledgeable operator
– More time needed for paralleling than automatic
paralleling
– A matter of judgment and skill
– Incorrect operation can result in damage to
generators
 Automation for Paralleling
Automatic paralleling:
• Voltage, frequency, phases of bus and incoming generator
monitored
• Connection automatically initiated if common bus is dead or if
conditions are acceptable
• Parallels generator to emergency bus automatically by
controlling voltage, speed of each generator
• Once voltage, speed of incoming generator is matched with
running generator and both are in phase, incoming generator is
connected to emergency bus
 Automation for Paralleling
Digital automatic paralleling system
Advantages:
– Reliability and Flexibility
– Simplicity and Ease of operation
– Compact size
– Fast operation (Synchronization in < 15 seconds)
 Automation for Paralleling
Digital automatic paralleling system
Advantages:
– Modular design minimizes engineering time during planning,
designing power system
– Facility for
• Diagnosis, data monitoring, control functions like governing,
synchronizing, voltage regulation using modem and PC
• Metering, remote monitoring, graphic and audible alarm
indication, trips, warnings, event logging, engine status
parameter monitoring and time/date stamping
 Automatic Synchroniser
• Device that compares and automatically adjusts
generator’s:
– Phase angle
– Frequency
– And/ or voltage

to that of the bus

Automatic Synchroniser
(Courtesy: Basler)
Automated Paralleling Scheme
 Paralleling Systems
• Random access paralleling system
• Automatic fixed – sequence paralleling system
 Random Access Paralleling System
• Automatically connects "first ready“ generator to
common bus
• Simultaneous closure of 2 units to dead bus is
prevented
• First generator on bus supplies most critical loads
• Control system synchronises, connects other
generators to common bus as each attains operational
status
 Random Access Paralleling System
• System adaptable to load priority schemes
• Provides fastest in-service time with highest
reliability
• Automatic operation without human operator
Automatic Fixed Sequence Paralleling System

• Parallels generators in predetermined sequence

• Control connects first generator to dead bus when
voltage, frequency are attained
• If a bus is not dead, control connects generator when
synchronism is achieved
• Control connects additional generator as each
generator gets ready for synchronisation
 Island Operation
• Generator network NOT connected to Utility power
net work
• Voltage, frequency of network controlled by generator
control system
• Maintains voltage and frequency within 0.5% of
nominal value in steady load conditions
• Has operating range 0.9 leading to 0.8 lagging – Can
be used for reactive power compensation
 Islanding of Systems and Generator
Behavior
• Site generators operated in parallel with Utility -
flexibility and reliability
• Islanding operation - Disconnection of site generators
from Utility during grid disturbance for independent
operation
• Unintentional islanding of generator can:
– Result in safety hazard
– Cause damage to equipment
– Deteriorate quality of power
– Reduce reliability
 Islanding of Systems and Generator
Behavior
Situations:
• Site generator supplying part load, balance supplied
from Utility
– Grid failure causes total local plant load to shift to generator,
leading to its collapse, total power failure
– Load shedding needed to protect generator
• Site generator generates more power than local
demand, exports excess power to Utility
– Sudden isolation of generator from Utility causes overshoot
of generator causing a trip
 Islanding of Systems and Generator
Behavior
• Unplanned generator islanding - Can damage
onsite equipment through supply of voltage,
freq. outside stipulated limits
• Coordinate generator protection scheme with
Utility protection scheme for mitigation
Load Management in Islanded Systems
• To prevent generator collapse
• Generation of islanded generators > Load
power demand
• Unbalance in demand vs supply can occur due
to
– Sudden islanding of generator and inability of
generator to supply all loads
– Tripping of one of site generators
– Sudden starting of a heavy load (ex. starting of a
big motor)
Load Management in Islanded Systems
• Automatic load shedding needed to protect
system collapse
• Automatic relays (under frequency, df/dt) to
trip non critical loads, protect system from
overload
• Only minimum adequate generators to be run
to avoid under-load operation – Uneconomical,
engine deterioration
 Generator Connected to Utility
Generator Earthing
• Important with MV generators
• Need to avoid internal damage for generator
earth faults
• Damage to active iron parts, therefore long
downtime
• Limiting by resistance grounding
• Need for galvanic isolation from external
system
 Generator Earthing
• Normally star winding generator neutral
earthed for protection of generator and loads
• Common methods:
– Resistance earthed system
– Solidly earthed system
– Reactance earthed system
– Earth-fault neutralizer or tuned earthing
 Generator Voltage Regulation
• Generator O/P voltage drops with increase in load due
to generator internal losses
• Need to maintain generator output voltage within
specified limits
• Limit voltage variation around 1% to 2% from no load
to full load at 0.8 PF by voltage regulator
• Example:
Maintaining voltage under steady state conditions
without hunting, within +0.5% of any voltage between
95% and 105% of rated generator voltage
 Generator Voltage Regulation
• Performed by AVR (Automatic voltage regulator)
• AVR:
 Senses voltage generated by generator
 Compares this voltage with reference voltage
 Controls exciter current to maintain generated
voltage within limits
 Compensates for variations in load, speed,
temperature and power factor of generator
 Generator Excitation Systems
• DC excitation systems
• Excitation power from DC generators:
 Driven by motor/shaft of main generator
 Self/separately excited
 Superseded by AC exciters
• Static excitation systems
 Generator Excitation Types
• Static excitation
– Use of slip rings
– Excitation current to field directly fed from AVR by means of slip
rings
– Wear and tear, higher maintenance demands
• Brushless excitation
– No slip rings
– Reduced maintenance demands
– Electronic voltage regulator
– Exciter
– Rotating Diode Bridge
– Most common in present day generators
 AC Excitation Systems
• Alternator as power source
• Exciter AC output rectified by controlled/non-
controlled rectifiers
• Stationary/ rotating rectifiers
• Magnetic and rotating amplifiers as regulators (olden
days)
• Electronic amplifier regulators (modern systems)
Brushless Generator - Schematic
 Brushless Excitation
• Consists of:
– Electronic voltage regulator
– Exciter
– Rotating Diode Bridge
• Most common in present day generators
Brushless Excitation
Typical Excitation circuitry of LV
Generator
 Automatic Voltage Regulator Operation
(Refer to previous slide)

• Residual magnetism in stator winding (1) causes small

current flow through excitation machine stator (4) to
initialize self excitation
• Choke (6) restricts excitation up to 1.1 times rated
voltage
• With additional load CT (7) produces additional
excitation current adding to choke current (Boosting)
• Excitation current supplied to exciter stator (4), after
rectification in stationary rectifier set (8)
Automatic Voltage Regulator Operation
(Refer to earlier slide)
• Electronic AVR (9) periodically switches on step-down
resistance connected parallel to excitation stator
winding
• Effective current flowing through Exciter stator (4) is
limited to ensure terminal voltage does not exceed pre-
set voltage
Voltage Variation due to Switching Loads
 Voltage Variation with Step Loads
• Sudden loads on generator cause depression of output
voltage (E.g. Large motor startup)
• Degree of voltage depression depends on generator
reactance and current drawn
• Voltage depression normally independent of load
already fed by generator
• Voltage sag, if excitation remains constant
• AVR controls excitation to bring generator voltage back
to normal
Cont…
Generator Voltage Variation with Step Loads
Induction Motor DOL Starting Curve
 Voltage Variation with Step Loads

• Amplitude, duration of voltage depression

depend on:
– Load current
– Power factor
– Generator sub-transient reactance
– Response time of AVR and excitation system
– Field winding characteristics

Cont…
 Voltage Variation with Step Loads
• Prolonged voltage dips can affect motor starting
performance
• Starting torque of motor proportional to square of
applied voltage - Voltage dip to 80% would result in 64%
of motor torque
• Difficulty in motor startup – Inability to start, prolonged
startup duration
• Effects: Damage to motor, tripping of generator, tripping
of motors connected to system etc.
Regulator Performance during Step Loading
• Constant Voltage Regulator
– Field current forcing to saturation to maintain
voltage
– Engine overloading – Engine may not recover during
overloads
• Volts/Hz Regulator
– Control voltage to follow frequency proportionally
to permit engine recovery during block overloads
– Minor changes in voltage controlled by gain control
 Voltage Regulators
Constant Volts vs Volts/Hz Regulator
 AVR Operation Modes
• Droop mode
• Power factor control mode
• Cross current compensation mode
 Voltage Droop Operation Principle
• Generator excitation current adjusted in
accordance with increase in load
• Compensation adjustment: Generator voltage
reduces few percent from no load to full load
• Droop principle used both in island operation
mode and parallel operation mode
Voltage Droop Control with AVR
 Reactive Load Control of Generator
• Active load controlled by speed regulator or
electronic load distribution
• Reactive load controlled by static device or
power factor regulator
• To prevent reactive power overload of
generator, generator voltage must be lowered at
increasing reactive load
Reactive Power Sharing of Parallel Generators
• Depends on voltage droop vs load settings of
AVRs
• Normally voltage droop is 2% to 3% of nominal
voltage
• Accuracy of generator o/p voltage under steady
loading conditions is +1%
Reactive Power Sharing of Parallel Generators

• Without voltage droop generator would:

– Tend to draw maximum kVAR share
– Lead to trips due to over current
– Trip due to reverse kVAR
– QDCT (Quadrature droop current transformer) used
for sensing changes in load current, provide
required droop
Reactive Load Sharing in Island Operation –
Voltage Droop Principle
 Generator Power Factor Control for Utility
Parallel Operation
• Voltage controlled by Utility
• kVAR proportional to kW
• Excitation proportional to load
• Stable operation – Not affected by voltage
fluctuations
Generator Power Factor Control for Utility
Parallel Operation
Generator Power Factor Control for Utility
Parallel Operation
Cross Current Compensation
 Cross Current Compensation (Cont...)
• Switch C1 open – Cross current compensation enabled
• Switch C1 closed (CT shorted) – Cross current
compensation disabled
• Switch C2 open – Operation in voltage droop control
mode
• Switch C2 closed – Cross current control mode
Reactive Load Sharing – Cross Current
Sharing
Cross Current Compensation Control
Block Diagram
 Voltage Regulator
• Monitors generated voltage, gives feedback for
proportional control of generator field current
• Control of field current changes generator
magnetic flux, which in turn regulates
generator voltage and reactive power - Closed
loop control
• Controls generator excitation
 Voltage Regulator
• Directly affects reactive load (var) sharing
• Must be equipped for paralleling and
connected for compensation by:
– Droop or
– Differential (cross current) method
• Typically can hold steady state generator
voltage with ±2% tolerance
 Generator Voltage Regulator
• Modern regulators are solid state type
• Must be compatible with generator and prime
mover
• Types:
– Constant voltage regulator
– Volts/Hz regulator
 Features of AVR
• Maximum excitation current limitation
• Minimum excitation current limitation
• Frequency fall of voltage limitation
Power Supply – Demand Management
 Generator Output (kVA)
S = Pinput x η/ PF
Where
S = Generator output in kAV
η = Efficiency of generator
Pinput = Shaft power output of prime mover
PF = Power factor of generator output
 Generator Output (kVA)
Example:
S = 500 kVA
PF = 0.8
η = 90%
Pinput = (500 x 0.8)/0.9
= 444 kW
 Power Demand
• Demand of a system meant for its load requirement
averaged over a time interval (measured in kW or kVA)
 Average demand
 Peak demand
 Maximum demand
 Power Demand (cont…)
• Average demand – average power requirement during
some specified period of time
• Maximum demand - Greatest of all demands which
have occurred during a given period
• Peak demand - Highest power requirement during
some specified period of time
 Average demand < peak demand
 Peak demand < Maximum demand
 Generation must match Consumption
• Power generation capacity > Power demand
• Ability to meet transient loads - Charging long
transmission lines, starting heavy loads, system
faults
• Failure to meet demand - Low voltage,
frequency drop and power system instability
 System Overloading and Effect on
Frequency
Power Demand > Generation
• Effects
 Voltage drop
 Frequency drop
 System instability
• Drop in generator speed, system frequency
• Sudden/excessive drop – Loss of synchronism
• Runaway effect of tripping other generators
 Load Types and Generator Sizing
• Generator sizing vary with load types
• Standby emergency loads resistive types – Limited to
residential/ commercial areas
• Continuous or emergency Inductive loads – Standard
Industry loads
• Low power factor loads like welding sets – Mostly in
construction sites
• Harmonic loads – Variable speed and rectifier circuits
 Evaluation of System Loads
• Electrical energy cannot be stored in a Power
System
• Generation > Demand to meet System
frequency
• Demand forecasting vital for efficient operation
 Evaluation of System Loads
• To ensure adequate generation margin to meet
Power demand
• To have margins to permit maintenance and
breakdown activities on generation units
• To plan for expansion, new installations of
generation units
 Capacity of Generator
• Normally given in kVA
• Useful power kW = kVA × power factor
• Diesel generators rated for 0.8 lagging power factor
• Prime mover capacity limits the maximum kVA that
can be drawn from the generator
• Power plant incorporate multiple generators
• Capacity of a power plant is given by the total kW or
MW produced by all the generators
• Voltage rating limited to around 25kV due to practical
limitations
 Capacity and Voltage planning for Generators in
Large Industries
Considerations in capacity estimation
• Capacity Requirement (kW/kVA) - Total Connected
load (Actual power usage may be less. Each unit may
not draw max power continuously/ simultaneously)
• Allowances for future growth
• Internal impedances, momentary overload
characteristics of local power source/transformer
• Predicted line voltage sags, surges, impulse transients
 Load Forecasting
• Maximum Demand data of users
• Load survey should determine following:
− Peak load, Maximum demand, Diversity factor, Load
factor and Demand factor to define size of
equipment
− Critical load, essential loads, general purpose/ non-
critical loads
− Constant voltage supply, no sags or surges
− Harmonic currents, filtering, etc.
 Load Forecasting
• Peak load: Maximum load - Instantaneous max. or max.
average over time period
• Average load: Load averaged over period of time - One
day, one week, one month or a year
• Connected load: Sum of electrical ratings of all loads
connected
• Demand: Electric load averaged over time period
usually in kW or kVA. Averaging time - 15 min or 30 min
or one hour
Cont …
 Definitions in IEEE Red book (IEEE Std.
141)
Load factor: Ratio of average load over designated period
of time to peak load occurring in that period
Demand factor: Ratio of max. coincident demand of
system, or part of system, to total connected load of
system, or part of system, under consideration
Diversity factor: Ratio of sum of individual non-
coincident max. demands of various subdivisions of
system to max. demand of complete system
 Load Forecasting
Maximum Demand: Greatest of all demands that have
occurred during specific period
• For billing purposes – Usually one month
• For design purposes it is design life of plant or
planning period
Load factor = (Average load)/ (Peak load)
Demand factor = (Max. Demand)/ (Connected load)
Diversity factor = (Sum of individual max. demands) /
(Total demand)
 Load Factor
The ratio of the average load over a designated period of
time to the peak load occurring in that period
 Demand Factor
• Customers often characterized by total connected load
- However, it is unlikely that equipment are drawing
their rated load
• E.g. Customer may have connected load of 400 kVA,
while max. demand of 150 kVA may by read from
customer’s meter at particular point of time
• Demand factor: Ratio of peak kVA to total connected
kVA (150/400 = 0.375 in above case)

• Demand factor =
 Diversity Factor
• Most loads are turned on/off randomly
− Probability of all customers experiencing same peak demand
simultaneously is small
− Probability decreases as number of customers increases
• Distribution systems can be designed to supply less power than
sum of individual customer peak demands
• Diversity factor: Ratio of sum of individual customer peak
demands to peak system demand

Diversity factor =
 Demand Factor and Diversity Factor
Calculations
There are four individual feeders having connected loads of 250
kVA, 300 kVA, 350 kVA and 100 kVA. Demand factors for these are
80%, 70%, 75% and 90% respectively. Diversity factor is 1.6.
Calculate:
1) Total demand of loads
2) Size of transformer required to supply these loads
 Demand Factor and Diversity Factor -
Calculations
Solution:
Calculating demand for Feeder loads
250 kVA x 80% = 200 kVA
300 kVA x 70% = 210 kVA
350 kVA x 75% = 262.5 kVA
100 kVA x 90% = 90 kVA

Total demand of loads = 762.50 kVA

Cont….
 Demand Factor and Diversity Factor -
Calculations
Total demand of the loads = 762.50 kVA
Diversity factor provided is 1.6
Actual demand of all loads = 762.5/ 1.6
= 476.6 kVA

Therefore size of transformer required = 500 kVA

 Generator Capacity Calculation
Determine the capacity of Generator to feed following loads

Type of Load Load Demand Factor Diversity Growth Factor

Magnitude Factor
Motor Load (PF 343 kW 0.76 1.05 10%
0.8)
Static Load 101 kW 1 1 10%
(PF 0.8)
 Generator Capacity Calculation
Total Connected Load = Total Motor Load + Total Static Load = 530 kVA
Total Demand Load = Total Motor load + Total Static Load
= 326 + 101 = 427 kVA
Total Demand Load (Motor) = 326 kVA
Diversity Factor = 1.05
Total Diversity Load (Motor) = 310 kVA
Total Demand Load (Static) = 101 kVA
Diversity Factor = 1
Total Diversity Load = 101 kVA
Total Diversity Load = 310 + 101 = 411 kVA
10% Load Growth Factor = 41.15 KVA
Total Load = 453 kVA
Capacity of Generator = 475 kVA
 Generator Faults
Electrical faults:
• Overload
• Overvoltage
• Unbalanced Loading
• Loss of excitation
• Loss of synchronism
• Stator Insulation Failure
• Rotors faults
• Reverse Power
 Generator Faults
Mechanical faults:
• Failure of Prime Mover
• Lubrication Oil Failure
• Overspeeding
• Rotor distortion
• Excessive vibration
Generator Protection
 Stator Earth Faults
• Generator neutral is grounded to enable protection
(normally impedance grounded)
• Severe arcing in core could damage the core -
therefore E/F currents limited to low values
• Small generators grounded through resistor
• Power station generators normally grounded through
grounding transformer with resistor in secondary
• Relay applied to measure transformer secondary
current or measuring voltage across resistor
 Earth Fault Protection

Current measurement Voltage measurement

 Overload Protection
• Generators very rarely get overloaded
• Thermocouple measurement of internal stator
winding temperature (normally hydrogen
cooled at large power stations) or embedded
thermistor
• Rotor winding constantly checked by measuring
resistance of field winding
 Overcurrent Protection
• IDMT relays for overcurrent (short circuit)
protection (not for thermal protection)
• In power stations with multiple generators line
side CT’s used for the relays
 Overvoltage Protection
• Can be transient O/V or can be sustained at system
frequency
• High speed transients normally protected by surge
arrestors at generators terminals (where suitable)
• Power frequency overvoltages usually result of:
– AVR failure
– Manual error (operator)
– Loss of load e.g. during load shedding)
• O/V protection normally employed at unattended
machines e.g. At a Hydro station
 Generator – Unbalance Protection
• Unbalanced loads create negative torque on generator
- Generator has to generate negative sequence currents
for loads demanding them
• Leads to overheating of Rotor as double frequency
(100Hz) currents flow in field system and body
• Eddy currents caused can cause heating of slot wedges
- softening them, they can then protrude into air gap
and cause damage
• Install Negative Phase Sequence Protection
 Rotor Faults Protection
• Rotor fed with DC to create magnetic field
• DC normally not grounded (floating) – Cannot detect
earth fault (no path for current to flow)
• Risk in event of second fault occurrence – Damage to
rotor winding due to shorting out part of winding
• May cause vibration in rotor due to unbalanced
magnetic forces and damage the machine
• Use Rotor ground fault protection
Rotor Fault Protection
Potentiometer method
Rotor Fault Protection
AC Injection method
Rotor Fault Protection
DC injection method
 Reverse Power Protection
• Applicable where generator is run in parallel
with other sets or with grid to protect against
prime mover failure
• If prime mover fails, generator will become
motor and draw power from busbars
 Field Failure (Loss of Excitation)
• If rotor field system fails machine would
continue to rotate as induction generator -
would continue operating at slip frequency
• Heating will occur but no major damage may
happen immediately
• Detected with impedance relay
 Out of Synchronism
(Loss of Synchronism)
• Severe system disturbance could cause
generator to lose synchronism (especially lightly
loaded systems)
• Can cause oscillation or pole slip
• Can sometimes also cause field trip if severe
• Machine would then be re-synchronized
automatically
 Field Suppression
• For severe fault in generator (e.g. phase to phase fault
on terminals) field should be tripped immediately to
limit damage as generator feeds it’s own fault
• Since field is DC fed, large arc would be drawn as field
tries to sustain itself and generates large back emf -
Automatic air circuit breaker with blow-out contacts
will extinguish this arc
• Field discharge resistor used in large Generators (>
5MVA)
Reverse Power, Frequency Rate and Vector
Surge relays
Reverse power relay
• Normal healthy condition - Generator supplies power
to common bus
• Problem in prime mover - Generator output reduced
causing reverse power flow from bus to generator
– Motoring of generator
– Damage to prime mover and generator
 Reverse Power Relay
• Detects reverse flow of power from bus to
generator
• Disconnects generator from bus in case of
reverse power flow
 Frequency Rate (df/dt) Relay
• Detection of rate of change of frequency
Applications
• Load shedding schemes:
– Sudden overloads in power system causes generators to go
out of step
– Frequency drops due to sudden overloading
– Fast drop in frequency detected by df/dt relay, which trips
non essential loads
• Isolation of site generator during grid disturbances
(where site generator connected with utility grid) -
df/dt relay used with vector surge relay
 Vector Surge Relay
• Protection of generators operated in parallel
with Utility
• Fast disconnection needed during utility power
failure
– To prevent damage by asynchronous linking
– To prevent generator feeding power to utility
 Vector Surge Relay
• Operation Principle
– Measures time duration of each voltage cycle
– Compares with reference value
– During vector surge condition, cycle duration differs
from normal duration – Relay detects variation
• Can detect when load is minimum 15% ~ 20% of rated
load
• Detects Utility failure in about 60ms, total isolating
time of generator from Utility less than 150ms
Vector Surge Relay

Vector Surge
 Vector Surge Relay
Applied for two types of systems:
• Only parallel operation of generator with Utility
without island operation:
– Relay trips generator breaker during Utility failure
– No power supplied by generator to loads
• Parallel operation and island operation: Relay trips
breaker connecting generator and Utility, permitting
generator supply to site critical loads
 Vector Surge Relay
Considerations - Designing vector surge protection
scheme
• Relay acts only when it sees min change of 15% ~
20% of rated power. Utility power failure causing
lesser change may go undetected
• Generator short circuit protection relay to be
suitably time delay configured - Very low trip times
may cause relay to trip generator on seeing a short
circuit in Utility
 Generator Connected to Utility
Protection Requirements
• Fault in external Utility system can be fed by plant
generator
• Need to isolate plant system at tie-point between
plant and Utility
• Circuit breaker is a MUST at incoming point
• Protection sensitive to faults in both directions
• Directional protection with different settings
 Generator Connected to Utility
Earth Fault Protection
• Earth faults in incoming line must be sensed
• Special case of incoming transformer with Delta HV
winding
– Inter-tripping with utility breaker
– Open Delta PT
• Earthed star HV winding if allowed by power utility
 Generator Connected to Utility
Increased Fault Level
• Impact on fault feeding capacity of system
• More serious in plant system
• Less impact on external system
• Review of ratings
 Tests For Generators
• Generator failure modes
• Winding Insulation testing and interpretation
– Insulation resistance
– Dielectric strength
– Tan delta
• Winding resistance testing
• Infrared Thermography
• Partial discharge testing
• Vibration analysis