2.D.

4 Chemical Defenses and the

Immune System

Plants and animals have a variety of

chemical defenses against infections
that affect dynamic homeostasis.
 Immune System

Specific Response
Nonspecific Response
(Acquired or Adaptive
(Innate Response)
Response)

Plants Invertebrates Vertebrates Vertebrates Only

A pathogen is a biological agent such as
a virus, bacterium, prion, or fungus, that
causes a disease or infection in its host.
Plants, invertebrates and vertebrates have
multiple, nonspecific immune responses to
pathogens.
Example: Invertebrate immune systems lack
pathogen-specific defense responses. Innate
immunity in invertebrates consists of the
exoskeleton and the digestive system and its
associated microorganisms.
Immune cells called hemocytes are found
inside the hemolypmh of insects. They
engulf pathogens via phagocytosis .
 Example: Plant defenses include molecular
recognition systems (PRRs). Pattern-recognition
receptors enable the detection of microorganism
associated molecular patterns (MAMPs).
 MAMPs are molecules associated with
groups of pathogens that are recognized by
cells of the innate immune system.
Infection triggers chemical responses called
systemic acquired resistance (SAR) that
destroy infected and adjacent cells, thus
localizing the effects of the pathogen.
 Immune System

Nonspecific Response Specific Response

(Innate Response) (Acquired or Adaptive Response)

Plants Invertebrates Vertebrates Vertebrates Only

PRRs
MAMPs Hemolymph
System Acquired Hemocytes
Resistance (SAR)
Vertebrate immune systems have
specific and nonspecific defense
mechanisms against pathogens.

Immune System

Nonspecific Specific Response

Response
(Acquired or
(Innate Adaptive
Response) Response)
 Nonspecific immunity, or innate
immunity, is present before any
exposure to pathogens and is effective
from the time of birth.
 Innate immunity provides broad defenses
against infection. A pathogen that
successfully breaks through an animal’s
external defenses soon encounters several
innate cellular and chemical mechanisms that
impede its attack on the body.

3 m
Intact skin and mucous membranes form
physical barriers that bar the entry of
microorganisms and viruses. Certain cells of
the mucous membranes produce mucus, a
viscous fluid that traps microbes and other
particles.
In the trachea, ciliated epithelial cells sweep
mucus and any entrapped microbes upward,
preventing the microbes from entering the
lungs.
 Secretions of the skin and mucous membranes
provide an environment that is often hostile to
microbes. The skin has a pH between 3 and 5,
which is acidic enough to prevent colonization of
many microbes. Also, lysozymes are enzymes
abundant in a number of secretions, such
as tears, saliva, human milk, and mucus that break
down the cell walls of many bacteria.
 Internal cellular and chemical defenses
depend mainly on phagocytosis.
Phagocytes are types of white blood cells
that ingest invading microorganisms and
initiate the inflammatory response.
Macrophages, a specific type of phagocyte,
can be found migrating through the body
and in various organs of the lymphatic
system.
Phagocytes such as macrophages attach
to their prey via surface receptors and
engulf them, forming a vacuole that fuses
with a lysosome.
Numerous antimicrobial proteins function in innate
defense by attacking microbes directly or by
impeding their reproduction. They have been
demonstrated to kill Gram negative and Gram
positive bacteria, mycobacteria, enveloped viruses,
fungi, and even transformed or cancerous cells.
About 30 antimicrobial proteins make up the
complement system. The complement system
can cause lysis of invading cells and help trigger
inflammation.

Interferons (IFNs)
provide innate
defense against
viruses and help
activate
macrophages.
 Inflammatory Response
In local inflammation, and other
chemicals released from injured cells promote
changes in blood vessels that allow more fluid,
more phagocytes, and antimicrobial proteins to
enter the tissues.
Natural killer (NK) cells patrol the body
and attack virus-infected body cells and
cancer cells. They trigger apoptosis in the
cells they attack.
 Immune
System

Nonspecific Response Specific Response

(Acquired or Adaptive
(Innate Response) Response)

Complement
Physical Natural Killer Inflammatory
System Macrophages
barriers such (NK) Cells Response
Proteins
as skin,
mucus
membranes,
cilia, sweat,
saliva,
stomach acid
 Specific immunity, also called acquired
immunity or adaptive immunity, develops
only after exposure to inducing agents such as
microbes, toxins, or other foreign substances.

Immune System

Nonspecific Specific Response

Response (Acquired or
(Innate Response) Adaptive
Response)
In acquired immunity, lymphocytes (white
blood cells) provide specific defenses
against infection.
 An antigen is any foreign molecule that is
specifically recognized by lymphocytes and
elicits a response from them. A lymphocyte
recognizes and binds to just a small, accessible
portion of the antigen called an epitope.

Antigen-
binding Epitopes
sites (antigenic
Antibody A
determinants)

Antigen

Antibody B
Antibody C
Vertebrates have two types of specific
immune responses: cell mediated
immunity and humoral immunity.

Specific (Acquired
or Adaptive)
Immune Response

Cell Mediated
Humoral Immunity
Immunity
The vertebrate body is populated by two main
types of lymphocytes which circulate through
the blood:

Specific (Acquired
• B lymphocytes (B cells) or Adaptive)
Immune Response

• T lymphocytes (T cells)
Cell Mediated
Humoral Immunity
Immunity

B Cells T Cells
 The plasma membranes of both B cells
and T cells have about 100,000 antigen
receptors that all recognize the same epitope.
B cell receptors bind to specific, intact antigens. They
are often called membrane antibodies or membrane
immunoglobulins.

Antigen- Antigen-
binding binding site
site Disulfide
bridge
Light Variable
chain regions

Constant
C C regions
Transmembrane
region

Plasma
membrane
Heavy chains

B cell Cytoplasm of B cell

(a) A B cell receptor consists of two identical heavy

chains and two identical light chains linked by
several disulfide bridges.
Each T cell receptor consists of two
different polypeptide chains.
Antigen-
Binding site

Variable
regions
V V
Constant
regions C
C
Transmembrane
region

Plasma b chain
membrane a chain
Disulfide bridge
Cytoplasm of T cell T cell

(b) A T cell receptor consists of one

a chain and one b chain linked by
a disulfide bridge.
T cells bind to small fragments of antigens that are
bound to normal cell-surface proteins called MHC
molecules. MHC molecules are encoded by a family
of genes called the major histocompatibility
complex.
Infected cells produce MHC molecules which bind to
antigen fragments and then are transported to the
cell surface in a process called antigen
presentation. A nearby T cell can then detect the
antigen fragment displayed on the cell’s surface.
 Depending on their source peptide,
antigens are handled by different classes
of MHC molecules.
Class I MHC molecules, found on almost all
nucleated cells of the body, display peptide
antigens to cytotoxic T cells.

Infected cell
1 A fragment of
foreign protein
Antigen (antigen) inside the
fragment cell associates with
an MHC molecule
and is transported
1 to the cell surface.
Class I MHC
molecule
2 2 The combination of
T cell MHC molecule and
receptor antigen is recognized
by a T cell, alerting it
to the infection.

(a) Cytotoxic T cell

Class II MHC molecules, located mainly on
dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells,
display antigens to helper T cells.
Microbe Antigen-
presenting
1 A fragment of cell
foreign protein
(antigen) inside the Antigen
cell associates with fragment
an MHC molecule
and is transported
to the cell surface. 1
Class II MHC
molecule
2 The combination of 2
T cell
MHC molecule and receptor
antigen is recognized
by a T cell, alerting it
to the infection.

Helper T cell
(b)
Lymphocytes arise from stem cells in the
bone marrow.
B cells mature in the Bone marrow. T
cells mature in the Thymus.

Bone marrow

Lymphoid Thymus
stem cell

B cell T cell

Blood, lymph, and lymphoid tissues

(lymph nodes, spleen, and others)
As B and T cells are maturing in the bone and thymus,
their antigen receptors are tested for possible self-
reactivity. Lymphocytes bearing receptors for
antigens already present in the body are destroyed
by apoptosis or rendered nonfunctional.
A primary immune response is the response
that occurs after a harmful antigen has been
encountered for the first time.
In a primary immune response, the binding of an
antigen to a mature lymphocyte induces the
lymphocyte’s proliferation and differentiation, a
process called clonal selection.
Clonal selection of B cells generates a clone of
short-lived activated effector cells and a clone
of long-lived memory cells.

Antigen molecules
Antigen molecules bind to the antigen
B cells that
receptors of only one
differ in
of the three B cells
antigen
shown.
specificity Antigen
receptor

The selected B cell

proliferates, forming
a clone of identical
cells bearing
receptors for the
selecting antigen.

Some proliferating cells Some proliferating

develop into long-lived cells develop into
memory cells that can Antibody short-lived plasma
respond rapidly upon molecules cells that secrete
subsequent exposure antibodies specific
to the same antigen. Clone of memory cells for the antigen.
Clone of plasma cells
Once a memory cell has been exposed
to a specific pathogen, it will react
much more rapidly when it encounters
the same pathogen in the future.
The secondary immune response is a much
quicker and more effective response that
occurs after a previously encountered
antigen reappears.
In the secondary immune response, memory
cells facilitate a faster, more efficient
response.

1 Day 1: First 3 Day 28: 4 Secondary response to anti-

2 Primary
exposure to Second exposure gen A produces antibodies
response to
antigen A to antigen A; first to A; primary response to anti-
antigen A
produces anti- exposure to gen B produces antibodies to B
bodies to A antigen B

104
Antibody concentration

103
(arbitrary units)

102 Antibodies Antibodies

to A to B
101

100
0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56
Time (days)
 Humoral and cell-mediated immunity defend
against different types of threats. Acquired
immunity includes two branches:

Specific (Acquired
or Adaptive)
Immune Response

• The humoral immune

response (B Cells) Humoral Cell Mediated
Immunity Immunity

• The cell-mediated
immune response (T Cells) B Cells T Cells
• The humoral immune
Specific (Acquired
response involves the or Adaptive)
Immune Response
activation and clonal
selection of B cells,
resulting in the Humoral Cell Mediated
production of secreted Immunity Immunity

antibodies.

• The cell-mediated B Cells T Cells

immune response
involves the activation
and clonal selection of
Antibodies Cytotoxic T Cells
cytotoxic T cells .
Cell Mediated Response
Helper T cells produce CD4, a surface protein
that enhances their binding to class II MHC
molecule–antigen complexes on antigen-
presenting cells. Activation of the helper T cell
then occurs.
Activated helper T cells secrete several
different cytokines that stimulate other
lymphocytes.
Cytotoxic T Cells (TC) are a response to
infected cells and cancer cells.

Cytotoxic T cells
make CD8, a
surface protein that
greatly enhances
the interaction
between a target
cell and a cytotoxic
T cell.
• Cytotoxic T cells bind
to infected cells, cancer
cells, and transplanted
tissues.
• Binding to a class I
MHC complex on an
infected body cell
activates a cytotoxic T
cell and differentiates
it into an active killer T
cell.
The activated cytotoxic T cell secretes proteins
that destroy the infected target cell

1 A cytotoxic T cell binds to a
class I MHC–antigen complex on a
target cell with the aid of
CD8. This interaction, along with
cytokines from helper T cells, leads to
the activation of the cytotoxic cell.
2 The activated T cell releases perforin
molecules, which form pores in the
target cell membrane, and proteolytic
enzymes, which enter the
target cell by endocytosis.
3 The enzymes initiate apoptosis within the
target cells, leading to fragmentation of the
nucleus, release of small apoptotic bodies,
and eventual cell death. The released
cytotoxic T cell can attack other target cells.

Cytotoxic T cell Released

cytotoxic
Perforin T cell
Cancer
cell
Granzymes
Apoptotic
1TCR CD8 3
target cell
Class I MHC 2
Pore
molecule

Target
cell Peptide
antigen Cytotoxic
T cell
Humoral Response
Activation of B cells is aided by cytokines
and antigen binding to helper T cells.
 The clonal selection of B cells generates
antibody-secreting plasma cells, the effector
cells of humoral immunity.
 An antibody, also known as an immunoglobulin (Ig),
is a large Y-shaped protein produced by B-cells that is
used by the immune system to identify and neutralize
pathogens.
Each antibody is specific to a particular antigen.
Each tip of the "Y" of an antibody contains
a paratope that is specific for one
particular epitope on an antigen, allowing these
two structures to bind together with precision.
There are five major classes
of antibodies that differ in
their distributions and
functions within the body.
 The binding of antibodies to antigens is
also the basis of several antigen disposal
mechanisms. It further leads to
elimination of microbes by phagocytosis
and complement-mediated lysis.
Antibody-mediated mechanisms of antigen disposal:

Binding of antibodies to antigens

inactivates antigens by

Viral neutralization Agglutination of

(blocks binding to host) antigen-bearing particles, Precipitation of Activation of complement system
and opsonization (increases such as microbes soluble antigens and pore formation
phagocytosis)

Bacteria Complement
Virus proteins
MAC

Pore
Bacterium Soluble
antigens Foreign cell

Enhances Leads to

Phagocytosis Cell lysis

Macrophage
 A summary of innate and acquired
immunity:

INNATE IMMUNITY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY

Rapid responses to a Slower responses to
broad range of microbes specific microbes

External defenses Internal defenses

Skin Phagocytic cells Humoral response

Mucous membranes Antimicrobial proteins (antibodies)
Secretions Inflammatory response
Invading
microbes Natural killer cells Cell-mediated response
(pathogens) (cytotoxic
lymphocytes)
 Learning Objectives:
LO 2.29 The student can create representations
and models to describe immune responses.
[See SP 1.1, 1.2]
LO 2.30 The student can create representations
or models to describe nonspecific immune
defenses in plants and animals.[See SP 1.1,
1.2]