Instrument and Avionic

System
Prepare by Tiew Foo Chuan
Introduction
• Instrument have vital role in controlling aircraft.
• They are means of communicating data between the aircraft systems
and the controller ( Pilot ).
• Content and format of data display are standard , why ?.
• For easier control and less mental efforts.
Common form of Displays
• Quantitative

• Qualitative
Quantitative Displays
• Data is presented in term of numerical value and by the relative
position between a pointer or indicator and graduated scale.
• Example :
• Airspeed Indicator
Qualitative
• Data presented in pictorial or symbolic formed.
• Example
• Altitude Director Indicator.
Instrument Panels and Layouts
• Primary Data be with pilot line of vision.
• Indication are so coordinated as to create a “picture” of the aircraft
flight condition.
• Important for instruments to be properly group to maintained
coordination.
• Most assist pilot on observing them with minimum effort.
Instrument Panels and Layouts
The ‘ Basic ‘ six layout
The Basic T Layout
Types of Indications
• a) Analogue Indication
• Mechanical instruments showing a pointer moving on a dial or scale.
• Used mainly in older generation aircraft

• b) Electronic Indication
• Instrumentation in the form of CRT or LCD display.
• Used on the modern aircraft
Example of Analogue Instrument
• Analogue Altitude which indicates ‘ Altitude’
Example of an Electronic Instrument
• Electronic Altitude Director indicator ( EADI ) or Primary Flight Display.
It also displays Altitude Air Speed .
Another Example of an Electronic Instrument
• Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator ( EHSI ) or navigation Flight
Display. It also display weather information.
Analogue Cockpit
Glass Cockpit Airbus A320 – almost ll
instruments are digital displays.
Airbus A340 Cockpit - almost all instrument
are digital displays.
B737 New Generation Glass Cockpit.
Major difference between cockpit
• Analogue
• Basic T layout consists of separate analogue instruments.
• Separate T layout for Pilot and Co-Pilot.

• Glass
• Basic T layout grouped in 2 CRT’s.
• One common T layout spread as whole instrument panel.
Electronic Instrument System
• All modern aircraft use electronic display devices.
• EIDS ( Engine Instrument Display System ).
• EFIS ( Electronic Flight Instrument System ).
• Highly sophisticated technology providing the pilot with altitude and
navigation information.
The Airbus A320 EIS Cockpit Layout
Features of the EIS ( Electronic Instrument
System ) System
• All is controlled by a central processing unit ( Data Management
Units).
• Parameters , Error messages and maintenance data can be retrieved
via MCDU ( Multi-function Control and Display unit ) or a printer.
• Data filtering : important data accentuated , temporary unimportant
suppressed.
• Important can be transferred from one monitor to another.
More features and advantages of EIS System
• Variability and variety.
• Coloured Displays.
• All monitor / displays for the system are the same ( less components
needed ).
• Brightness controlled automatically depending upon the level of
sunlight.
• Can be sent via radio to ground ( ACARS ) Arinc Communication
Address and Reporting System ).
One disadvantage
• In bright sunlight it might be more diffcult to read monitor indications
than it was with analogue indicator.
Monitoring System
• Parts of electronic Instrument System :-
• On AIRBUS
• ECAM System ( Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring ).

• On BOEING
• EICAS System ( Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System ).
ECAM SYSTEM
• Monitors aircraft functions and relays to the pilots.
• Produces messages detailing failure.
• In certain cases lists procedure to undertake to correct problems.
• Colour coded warning scheme help pilots to instantly assess the
situation.
EFIS / ECAM System Components Airbus
The Engine / Warning CRT Displays Shows
System / Status CRT Display
System / Status CRT Display
The ECAM Control Panel
The MCDU and Printer
CRT Switching
EICAS System
• Provide aircraft engine parameters such as RPM , temperature values
, fuel flow etc.
• Monitor systems like hydraulic , air conditioning , electrical etc.
• Generates crew annunciations and warning.
EFIS / EICAS system
EICAS Display Units
EICAS Warning and Caution Annunciation
Panel
ECAM / EFIS / ECAS Display Message
Differences
Numbering System
• Many number system are in use in digital technology.

• The most common use are :-

• Decimal
• Binary
• Octal
• Hexadecimal
Decimal System
• Composed of 10 numerals or symbols.

• Using these symbols as digital of a number, can express any quantity.

• Called the base-10 system because it has 10 digits.

• 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
Decimal Example
• 12.410

• 150.610

• 20456.110

• 300657.310
Binary System
• There are only two symbol possible digit value, 0 and 1.
• This base-2 system can be use represented any quantity in decimal or
other base system.

• Binary Example
• 1110
• 1011110
• 1111011100
Binary System
• Any number converted to BINARY form , the binary number is known
as a WORD.
• Each WORD is formed of a number of BITS ( BINARY DIGITS ) and this
represent the WORD LENGTH.
• Example : 34710 = 1010110112
• So 1010110112 is a WORD , word length is 9 , because there is 9 bits
OCTAL SYSTEM
• The octal number system has a base of eight.

• Eight possible digital :- 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.

• Octal Example :-
• 54108
• 7654218
• 10476648
HEXADECIMAL SYSTEM
• Hexadecimal system uses base 16.

• It uses the digital 0 through 9 plus the letters A, B, C, D, E and F. as the 16

digital symbols.

• O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F.

• Hexadecimal Example :-
• BD16
• 452EA16
• E451B2CD316
DECIMAL TO BINARY COVERSION
• Example : Converse to Binary for number 2710 and 18110
• 27/2 = 13 balance 1 181/2 = 90 balance 1
• 13/2 = 6 balance 1 90/2 = 45 balance 0
• 6/2 = 3 balance 0 45/2 = 22 balance 1
• 3/2 = 1 balance 1 22/2 = 11 balance 0
• 1/2 = 0 balance 0 11/2 = 5 balance 1
• Results :- 2710 = 11010 5/2 = 2 balance 1
• 2/2 = 1 balance 0
• 1/2 = 0 balance 1
• Result :- 18110 = 10101101
Decimal to Octal Conversion
• Example : - 17710 Example :- 398510
• 177/8 = 22 balance 1 3985/8 = 498 balance 1
• 22/8 = 2 balance 6 498/8 = 62 balance 2
• 2/8 = 0 balance 2 62/8 = 7 balance 6
• 7/8 = 0 balance 7

• Result 17710 = 2618 Result = 398510 = 12678

Decimal to Hexadecimal
• Example : - 37810 Example : - 694210
• 378/16 = 23 balance 19 = ( A ). 6942/16 = 433 balance 14 = ( E )
• 23/16 = 1 balance 7 433/16 = 27 balance 1
• 1/16 = 0 balance 1 27/16 = 1 balance 11 = ( A )
• 1/16 = 0 balance 1
• Result : - 378 = 17A16 Result :- 6942 = 1A1E16
Binary to Decimal Conversion
•A
•B
•C
• 11011 10110101
• =2+2+0+2+2 =2+ 0+2+2+0+2+0+2
• = 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 128 + 0 +32 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1
• = 172 = 1812
Binary to Octal Conversion
• 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
• 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

• Example :-
• 100 111 010 = ( 100 ) ( 111 ) ( 010 ) = 4728

• 1 101 010 = ( 001 ) ( 101 ) ( 010 ) = 1528

Binary to Hexadecimal
• 0 0000
• 1 0001
• 2 0010 Example :
• 3 0011
• 4 0100 101 1101 = ( 101 ) ( 1101 ) = 5D16
• 5 0101
• 6 0110 11 1001 1011 = ( 11 ) ( 1001 ) ( 1011 ) = 39B16
• 7 0111
• 8 1000 1011 0010 1111 = ( 1011 ) ( 0010 ) (1111 ) = B2F16
• A 1001
• B 1010
• C 1011
• D 1100
• D 1101
• E 1110
• F 1111
Octal to Decimal Conversion
• Example :-

• 2378 = 2 ( 82 ) + 3 ( 81 ) + 7 ( 80 )
• = 128 + 24 + 7
• = 15910

• 95348 = 9 ( 83 ) + 5 ( 82 ) + 3 ( 81 ) + 4 ( 80 )
• = 9(512) + 5( 64) + 3(8) + 4(1)
• = 4608 + 320 + 24 + 4 = 495610
Octal to Binary Conversion
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

• Example :-
• 4728 = 100 111 0102
• 1528 = 001 101 0102
Hexadecimal to Decimal

• Example :-

• 2E16 = 2 ( 161 ) + 14 ( 160 ) = 4610.

• 9BC316 = 9 ( 163 ) + 11 ( 162 ) + 12( 161 ) + 3 ( 160 ) = 3987510

 Hexadecimal to Binary

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

5 D16 = (0101) + (1101)2 = 0101 11012

3 9 B16 = ( 0010 ) (1101) (1011 )2 = 0010 1101 10112

B 2 F16 = ( 1011 ) (0010 ) ( 1111 )2 = 1011 0010 11112

Analog and Digital Signal
Analogue
• Analog signal is continuously value , such as temperature or speed ,
with infinite possible value in between.
• Analog signal is directly measurable quantities in term of some other
quantity.
• Most real life data are an analog.
• It can have variable value and can fit into any reading
• Example : -
• Thermometer - mercury height rises as temperature rises.
• Car Speedometer - needle move faster right as you accelerate.
Digital
• Digital is a discretely valued signal , such as integers , encoded in
binary.
• Digital signal – have only two states . For digital computer we refer to
binary states, 0 and 1 . “ 1 “ represent ON and “ 0 ” represent OFF.

• Example :-
• Light switch can be either ON or OFF.
• Door to room is either OPEN or CLOSED.
ADC Basic Principle
• The basic principle of operation is to use the comparator principle to
determine whether or not to turn ON a particular bit of the binary
number output.
• It is typically for an ADC to use a digital to analog converter ( DAC )
one of the inputs to the comparator.
• Analog to digital conversion - ADC - is a signal conversion process
that periodically samples and converts a continuously varying signal -
analog level - into digital values.
Example of Data Conversion
• Digital to Analogue
• Like CD data to speaker output.

• Analogue to Digital
• Microphone output to digital for storage of CD.
Analogue to Digital Conversion
Bits , Bytes and Word
• The traditional data a hierarchy are :-

• Bit – either 0 or 1.
• Byte – a collection of bits to make a character.
• Word – a collection of byte to have a meaningful word.
• Field – a collection of words.
• A record – a collection of field on the related subjected.
Traditional Example of – STUDENTS FILE
• Student’s File – consist of 100 record of students.
• A Record - for example – information on students.
• Fields - example students name or address or
telephone number example Ahmad.
• Word - the name of the student example Ali.
• Byte - A represented by 10000001.
• Bit - Either 0 or 1.
ARINC 429 DATA WORD
• - In computing , word is natural unit of data used by a particular
processor design.

• It is basically a fixed sized group of bits , that are handle as a unit by

the instrument.

• The number of bit in a word ( the word size , word width , word
length) is determined by the computer architecture.
• ARINC ( Aeronautical Radio Incorporated ).
Introduction to Data Bus
• - Data buses are used to transmit data from one component to
another.
• - The buses can be electrical or fiber optic.
• The specification for data transmission is drawn by ARINC.
• The standard used in aircraft is ARINC 429.
About ARINC 429
• - It defines avionic equipment should talk with each other.
• Defines the electrical and data characteristic and procotol.
• A 32 bits serial bus with data flow in one direction. If two direction
are required.
• The signal uses three level : - 10V , 0V and +10V.
• + 10V signifies logic 1 and ( -10V) is logic 0.
• High speed 100Kbits/sec and low speed of 12-14Kbits/sec.
Data Bus
• Operates on one of the two speeds :-
• High speed at 100kbits/sec.
• Low speed at 12kbits/sec.
• Self clocking –the receiver receives the null between the bits to
generate its internal clock.
• Self synchronous – the 4 bits null is recognized and used to generate
word synchronisation.
Five Basic Parts
• Label – ( e.g True air speed , TAT 0.
• Source / Destination Identifier ( SDI )
• Data field ( bit 11-28 ).
• Sign Status Matric ( SSM ) ( e.g + , - , North ).
• Parity Bits ( Odd Parity ).
Eq ID Equipment Type

001 Flight Control Computer ( 701 )

002 Flight Management Computer ( 702 )

003 Thrust Control Computer ( 703 )

004 Inertial Reference System ( 704 )

005 Attitude and Heading Ref. System ( 705 )

006 Air Data System ( 706 )

007 Radio Altimeter (707 )

008 Air Borne weather Radar ( 708 )

009 Air Borne DME ( 709 )

00A FAC
BIRTH OF ARINC 629
• 1977 ==> Boeing begin to work on “ DATAC “ project.

• 1977 – 1985 ==> DATAC emerged as ARINC 629.

• 1989 ==> ARINC 629 was adopted by AEEC.

• 1990 ==> ARINC 69 was first implemented in Boeing 777.

Triple Triple Redundant 777 primary Flight
Computer.
ARINC 629 DATA BUS
• -Time Division Multiple.
• Linear Bus
• Multiple Transmitter Access
• 2 Mbps Data Rate
• Current Mode Coupling ( Present Implementation ).
Data Buses
• A wire or a group of wires used to move data to / from components
and to / from other computer.
• The data can be in the form of electrical pulses or light signal ( Fiber
Optic ).
ARINC ( Aeronautical Radio Incorporated )
• A company that develop and operates aviation system and system.
• ARINC , ACARS ( data link between aircraft and ground ). LRU
standard.
• Develops also solution for defense , networks , security.
• Founded 1929.
• ACARS ( Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System ).is
a digital datalink for transmission of short messages between aircraft
and ground stations via air-band or satellite. The protocol was design
by ARINC and deployed 1978 using the telex format.
ARINC 429
• The most commonly used data bus in commercial aircraft.
• Defines how avionics equipment and systems communicate on the
aircraft.
• It characteristics are :-
• Unidirectional transitional ( Simplex ).
• 32 bits word transmitted over 2 wires ( twisted pair ).
• Bipolar R2 encoding ( ‘1’ , +10v , -10V )
• Messages are transmitted at 12.5 14.5 kbps ( low speed mode ) or
100 kbps ( high speed mode ).
ARINC 429
• It is commonly installed in :-
• 1) Airbus A310 /A320 / A330 /A340
• 2) Boeing B737 / B747 / B757 / B767.
• 3) Boeing B777 uses ARINC 629.
ARINC 429
• Is a specification which define how avionic equipment and system
should communicate to each other.
• Consists of pairs of twisted wires with shielding.
• Point to point bus and uses a unidirectional data.
• Also known as the Mark 33 Digital Information Transfer System (DITS).
• Messages are transmitted at either 12.5 Kbits/s or 100 Kbits/s to
other system element that are monitoring the bus messages.
• Always transmitting either 32 bits data words or a NULL state.
ARINC 429
• It is commonly installed in :-
• 1) Airbus A310 /A320 / A330 /A340
• 2) Boeing B737 / B747 / B757 / B767.
• 3) Boeing B777 uses ARINC 629.
ARINC 429 Electrical Characteristic
• Self clocking and self synchronizing system called ‘ Bipolar to Zero’.
• Transmitting in binary bits form where bits ‘1’ represent high voltage
(+5v) and bit ‘0’ represent low voltage (-5v) level for half of clock cycle
than each pulse return to zero in the middle of the clock pulse.
ARINC 429 Electrical Characteristics
ARINC 429 Protocol
• Only one transmitter on a wire pair.
• Always transmit 32 bit word or a NULL state.
• At least 1 receiver on wire pair and up to 20 receiver only.
• Number of receiver depend on line length and the number of
receivers connected to the bus.
ARINC 429 Word Format
• Word format is a 32 bits with 5 basic parts namely
• Label
• Source / Destination Identifier (SDI).
• Data field
• Sign Status Matrix (SSM)
• Parity bit (P)
ARINC 429 Word Format
ARINC 429 – Word Format
• LABEL - The first 8 bits of the words ( OCTAL Coded ).
• Identifies the information contained in the data e.g air speed , total
air temperature.
• LABEL PARAMETER
• 230 True Air Speed
• 231 Total Air Temperature
• 233 Static Air Temperature
• 323 Flight path Acceleration
• 330 Body Yaw Rate
ARINC 429 – Word Format
ARINC 429 – Word Format
• Data Field - Contains specific data related to the LABEL. For binary
word contained in bits 11 – 28 an binary coded decimal (BCD) in bits
11 – 29 . Any bit not used are filled with logic ‘0’ ( pad bits).

• Sign Status Matrix - bits 29 , 30 , 31 for binary word and 30 , 31 for

BCD . Identify characteristic of the word. E.g east / west ; +ve / -ve
and its status e.g No computed data , failure warning functional test
or normal operation.
ARINC 429 – Word Format
• PARITY - Uses odd parity e.g Total number of logic “1” in the word
must be an odd number. If not parity bit is set to 1.
• - Uses to check an error e.g if receiving signal does not
contain odd number 1 , fault signal will be generated.
ARINC 429 – Transmission Order
• The Last Significant Bits (LSB) of each byte except the label is
transmitted ahead of the data in each case.

• The order as follow :-

• 8 , 7 , 6 , 5 , 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ,….........32
Birth of ARINC 629
• 1977 ==> Boeing begin to work on “ DATAC “ project.

• 1977 – 1985 ==> DATAC emerged as ARINC 629.

• 1989 ==> ARINC 629 was adopted by AEEC.

• 1990 ==> ARINC 69 was first implemented in Boeing 777.

ARINC 629
• Additional ARINC standard hat is being developed and is used in new
fleet of Boeing 777.
• Uses a high speed Bi-directional Bus with the capability of either
periodic or aperiodic transmission.
• Access to the bus to controlled by a sophisticated protocol involving
wait period , quite period ,and other rules.
• Date bus is unshielded twisted pair of wires , bonded and terminated
at both ends.
• Data is send out the rate of 2 Mbps.
ARINC 629
• ARINC 629 introduced in May 1995.
• Used on B777 , A330 and A340.
• Multiple- source , Multiple Sink System.
• Each terminal can transmit and receive data.
• ARINC 629 can handle total 120 terminals.
• It support a data rate of 2 Mbps.
ARINC 629 Data Bus
• Time division multiple
• Linear Bus
• Multiple Transmitter Access
• 2 mbps Data Bus
• Current mode coupling.
ARINC 629 System - Components
ARINC
• Examples of ARNIC specification are :-
• ARINC 573 – Digital Flight Data Recording
• ARINC 561 – Inertial Navigation System.
• ARINC 429 – Transfer of digital data between avionic components
• ARINC 629 – Improvement of ARINC 429
ARINC 573
• Used in Flight Date Recorder.
• Harvard Bi phase encoding.
• 12 bits word of data.
• Data are a snapshot of many avionic subsystem on the aircraft.
• Each frame contains the same data at different snapshot in time.
• ARINC 717 is an alternative extended protocol to ARINC 573.
ARINC 708
• Used in airborne weather radar system.
• Simplex bus with 2 wires.
• Manchester encoding.
• 1 Mbps clock speed.
• Data word 1600 bits long.
Convertor
• An electronic integrated circuit which transforms a signal from analog
( continues ) to digital ( discrete ) form.
• Analog signal and directly measureable quantities.
• Digital signal only have two states for digital computer , we prefer to
binary , 0 and 1.
• Digital computer require signal to be in digital form whereas most
Instrumentation transducers have an output signal in analogue form.
• ADC, conversion is therefore require at the interface between
analogue transducers and digital computer.
Converter
• Microprocessor can only perform complex processing on digitalized
signals.
• ADC provides a link between the analog world of the transducers and
digital world of signal processing and data handling.
• There are many different types of analog to digital converter.
• Each converter offer something in the way :-
• 1) Speed 2) Cost 3) Power dissipation 4) Complexity.
Counter type convertor
• One of the simplest type of analog to digital converter is a counter
type ADC.
• The input signal of ADC is connected to the signal input of its internal
comparator.
• The ADC then systematically increases the voltages of the reference
input of the comparator until the reference become large than the
signal.
• And the comparator output goes to 0.
• Example : consider an input signal is 4.78 volts ,the initial
comparator’s input would be 2.5 volts.
• The comparator compares two value then the result this is less than
4.78 volts then the next high value ( 5.00 volts ) is applied.
• The comparator compares the two value and say this is greater than
4.78 volts and switches 0.
• He digital output of the ADC is the number of times the ADC increase
the voltage after starting at initial 2.5 volts.
• This scheme is relatively simple , but as the number of ADC increases
the time taken to scan through all possible values lower then input
will grow gradually
Operation of counter type ADC
Operation of counter type ADC
Successive Approximation
• A Succession Approximation Register ( SAR ) is added to the circuit.
• Instead of counting up in binary sequence , this register count by
trying all values of bits starting with MSB and finishing at LSB.
• The register monitor the comparator output to see of the binary
count is greater or less than the analog signal input and adjust the
bits accordingly.
• The SAR architecture mainly uses the binary search algorithen.
• The SAR ADC consists of fewer blocks such as one comparator , one
DAC ( Digital to Analog Converter ) and are control logic.
• The algorithm is very similar to like searching a number from
telephone book.

• Application
• Scanner :- When you scan a picture with a scanner, what scanner is
doing is an analog to digital conversion :- it is taking the analog
information provided by the picture ( Light ) and converting into
digital.
• An other application : When u – you record your voice or use a VoiP
solution on your computer you are using analog to digital converter to
convert you voice , which is analog into digital information.
Digital to Analog Converter
• Digital to Analog Converter ( DAC ) is function that convert digital data
( usually binary ) into analog signal ( current , voltage , electric charge
).
• Digital to Analog converter , is a device (usually a single chip ) that
convert digital data into analog signals.
• Modern require a DAC to convert data to analog signal that can be
carried by telephone line.
• Video adaptor also require DAC to convert digital data to analog signal
that the monito can process.
• In his type of DAC components used it :-
• 1) Operational Amplifier
• 2) Switches
• 3) Resistor
• 4) Voltage Source
• 5) Ground
• Binary weighted resistor are used to distinguish each bit from the
most significant to the least significant.
• Binary weight resistor is reliable and simple to do.
• The circuit shown is a digital to analog convertor 4 bits weighted
binary resistance network circuit types.
• Resistor values can be calculated using the weight of the binary
number.
• Advantages DAC
• Simple construction / Analysis
• Fast Conversion

• Disadvantages DAC
• Require low switch resistance in the transistor.
• Can be expensive , therefore usually limited to 8 bits resolution.
Data Transmission and Communication.
• Data communication deals with the transmission of signals in a
reliable and efficient manner.
• Ultimately , its about transmitting data ( ie bits ) across some physical
transmission medium :-
• Electricity - copper wire , twisted pairs , undersea cable.
• Light infra-red through air , laser through fibre-optic cable.
• Electro-magnetic radiation – radio , microwave , satellite.
• The communication is defined as threat of disseminating information.
• It presuppose that :-
• 1) there is information to disseminate.
• 2)The desire of requirement to dissemination exits.
• 3)There is an agency to send / transmit information.
• 4)There is a means of encoding information.
• 5) There a medium to carryout the information.
• 6) There is a recipient to receive the information.
• 7) The recipient is capable of understanding the information received.
Communication Model
• Source – generate data to be transmitted.
• Transmitter – convert data into transmittable signals.
• Transmission system – carries data.
• Receiver – convert received signal into data.
• Destination – takes incoming data.
Basic Elements of communication system
• In any communication between two entities the following 10
elements can be identified :-
• 1) A Sender
• 2) A Receiver
• 3) Addressing , to identify where the receiver is.
• Protocol – A set co-operation rules to achieve communication.
• Transmission Code – an agreed “ language “ to be used.
• Transmission Rate – the speed at which “ what is being
communicated “ is being send.
• Transmission Synchronisation – how to recognize what is being
communicated.
• Transmission Medium
• Error detection or correction
• Transmission efficiency – how much overhead must the added to
manage the transmission.
Transmission Media
• Two wire “ telegraph wires “ seen in old firlures.
• Simplest arrangement , with two wires , separated by air.
• Can pick up interference and suffer ‘ cross-talk ‘.
• Only reliable for low data rates.

• Twisted pair – Currently used for domestic phones.

• Two insulted with twisted together.
• May also have addition protective screen of metallic foil :- “Shielded
twisted pair “).
• Suitable for short distant medium speed link.
• Suffer from “ skin effect “ ready to higher resistance at data rates.
• Note “skin effect” mean HF signals carried only on skin effects , in
effect reducing the area of the wires from a solid wire to a tube of the
same diameter.

• Coaxial Cable – Commonly seen on the TV aerial leads.

• Single central wire , separated from woven outer conductor by plastic
insulation.
• Not prone to interference.
• Can support medium to high data rates.
• Optical Fiber – similar to coaxial in appearance.
• Uses single strand of glass as core , with light shield around it.
• Immune to electrical interference , and diffcult to eaves drop.
• Often used in industies or other electrically ‘ noisy ‘ environment.
• Capable of high data.
• Mechanically weaker than electrical wire and different join.

• Micro waves - Ultra high frequency radio waves.

• Line of sight from the sender to receiver.
• No need for wires , so good across rivers , amin roads.
• Extremely high data rates.
• Satellite Microwaves - mainly through space so long lines of sight.
• -Little human interference , but effected by extreme solar activity.

• Transmission may be simplex , half duplex and duplex.

• Simplex – in one direction only.
• Half duplex – in both direction but only in one direction at any once
time.
• Duplex – in both direction simultaneously , if require.
ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERTER (ADC)
• Digital ramp converter
• Successive approximation ADC
• Flash ADC

• Analogue to digital converter is process by which analog signals are

converted to their digitized form.
DIGITAL RAMP CONVERTER
• The ramp or staircase type of Analogue to Digital Converter uses a
counter and a DAC ( Digital to Analogue Converter ) to match the
digital output to the analogue input.
• It does this by converting to sequential count back into an analog
signal and comparing the voltage level to the input signal stopping
the count when the two are equal. With this method of conversion ,
the output climbs from zero to the desired value and it is going to
take longer to produce a correct output for higher voltages than for
lower.
• Disadvantage – longer conversion time.
Digital Ramp Converter
Successive Approximation Converter ADC
Successive – Approximation ADC ( SAC )
• Use register instead of counter (digital ramp ) as input to DAC.
• Control logic modifies the content of the bit by bit until the output is
equivalent to VA.
• Has fixed value of conversion time independent of value of the
analogue input therefore faster than digital ramp.
Integrated Dual Slope Converter
Integrated Dual Slope Converter
• Output from integrator has two functions ( Input and time ) to
comparator.
• Output of the integrator slowly changing voltage , rising to peak –
ramp up ( fixed time ) and fall back to zero – ramp down. This time
then is measured as analogue input.
• Use electronic switch to change the integrator input voltage ( Vin and
Vref )
• Slower than SAC but more accurate and high immunity noise.
• Application : Multi-meter where accuracy is the prime concern than
speed.
Charge Balancing Converter
Charge Balancing Converter
• Used over sampling technique also known as Sigma / Delta
modulation.
• Sampling analogue information more than sampling rate.
• Differential amplifier produce error signal by comparing with
analogue input.
• The output from differential amplifier than is integrated then fed to
comparator with output is clocked at over sampling rate.
Charge Balancing Converter
• If integrator output is 0 that comparator output is 1 else 0 (
Comparator output is 1 bit ADC ).
• The term charge balancing used because the idea of converter is to
maintain zero charge on the integrator capacitor.
Flash ADC
• This is 3 bits resolution flash converter with 1V step size , The voltage
divider set up reference level for each comparator 7 level
corresponding to 1V.
• The analogue input Vn connected to the other input of each
comparator.
• Output of the comparators are connected 10 active LOW priority
encoder.
• Operate at high speed due to no timing sequence , no clocked signal ,
conversion as soon as VA is applied only dependent on the
propagation delay of the components.
Flash ADC
• N-bit convertor require 2n possible voltage level and 2n -1
comparators.

• Disadvantages are :-
• More complex circuitry with increasing of the bit required.
• High cost due to complex circuitry.
• Restricted to he application where high speed is prime requirement.
Flash ADC
DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE CONVERTOR ( DAC )
• OP– AMP Summing
• Precision Level DAC
• Current DAC
• R-2R ladder DAC
OP – AMP Summing
Op-amp act as summing amplifier
Op-Amp Summing
• Disadvantages are
• Output voltage may not be ideal valve due to :-
• i) variation in input and feedback resistor
• ii) logic level input not being exactly 0V or 5V
• Only suitable for small number of bit.
Precision Level DAC
Current DAC
• Uses 4 current parallel path , precise voltage to generate an accurate
analogue output.
• The state of each switch is controlled by logic levels at binary input. (
B0 ,B1 , B2 , B3 ).
• Current through each path is determined by an accurate reference (
VREF) and precision resistor ( Binary Weighted ).
• The output current will be the sum of the individual current.
Basic Logic Gates
Basic Logic Gate
Boolean Constant and Variable
• Allow 2 binary variable only :- 1 or 0.
• Represent voltages or logic level.
• May represent ( In Circuit ) ON ; CLOSED ( Logic 1 ) and OFF ; OPEN (
Logic 0 ).
• Only 3 operation in Boolean algebra.
• Logical addition ( + 0 ; Logical multiplication ( * ) and
complementation ( - ).
AND Gate
Logic Symbol EEquivalent Circuit

Input : A and B
Output : C
Truth Table :
Boolean Expression :
C = A.B
OR Gate
• Logic Symbol Boolean Equation
• C=A+ B
• Equivalent Circuit
•

• Truth Table
NOT GATE ( Inverter )
• Logic Symbol Boolean Equation
• C=A

• Truth Table
NAND Gate
• Logic Symbol Boolean Equation
• Y = AB
• Equivalent Circuit

• Truth Table
NOR Gate
• Logic Symbol Boolean Equation
• F=A + B

• Equivalent Circuit
• Truth Table
Exclusive OR ( XOR )Gate
Exclusive NOR ( XNOR ) Gate
Multiple Input Gate Symbols
Application Logic Gate
Application of Logic Gate
Analogue Computer
• An analog computer is a type of computer or machine that work on
continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena of electrical
, mechanical or hydraulic quantities as input behaviors and solve
problem.
• An analog computers do their jobs on variable input quantities.
• An analog computers uses continuous variation for mathematical
operation and ultilise mechanical or electrical signals them were
commonly used in science and industry for measuring value and
other require operation like temperature and volume.
• Using analog computer is almost obsolete now.
Digital Computers
• Digital computer that performs calculation and logical operation with
0 and 1 digits , known as binary number system.
• Computer of this type represents information by numerical ( binary )
digit and uses digit for calculation or operation.
• Digital computer measured discrete value of 0 or 1 and carryout
mathematical calculation on them.
• Use of digital computer is in every field of science , industry , research
labs as well as other human life.
Input / Output Unit
Computer Memory
• Computer memory are the physical devices used to stored programs
or data on a temporary or permanents basic of use in a computer or
other digital electronic devices.
• There are two categories of computer memory :-
• Primary storage and Secondary storage .
• Primary storage or main memory stores 3 types of information for
very brief period of time :-
• 1) Data to be processed by the CPU.
• 2) Instruction for CPU as to how to process the data.
• 3) Operating system that manage various aspects of the computer’s
operation.
Random Access Memory
• RAM is volatile memory.
• It hold its data as long as the computer is switch ’ON’.
• All data in RAM is lost when computer is switch ‘ OFF’.
• It purpose is to temporarily hold programs and data for processing.
Read Only Memory
• Read only memory holds programs and data permanently even when
computer is switch ‘OFF’.
• The contents of ROM fixed at the time of manufacture.
• Store programs that helps startup the computer.
• Access time of between 10 to 50 nanosecond.
• Various types of Rom :
• 1) Programmable Read Only Memory
• 2) Erasable Programmable Read Only memory
• 3) Flash Rom 4) Rom Catridge
The Central Processing Unit ( CPU )
• It is the brain of a computer system.
• The CPU function are :-
• 1) Receive Input
• 2) Interprets instruction provided provided by programs.
• 3) Direct other components of the system to act.
• 4) Processes data.
• 5) Control Output.
The Central Processing Unit
The Central Processing Unit
The Central Processing Unit
The Central Processing Unit
Airborne Digital Computer Application
FMS – Flight Management System
FMS – Flight Management System
What is Fiber Optic
Fiber Optic
Operation
Light
Reflection
Refraction
Cable Structure
Total Internal Reflection in Optical Fiber
The Fiber Optic Link
Fiber Optic Connectors
Fiber Optic Connectors
Fiber Optic Connector
Fiber Optic Splices
Advantages of using Fiber Optic
Disadvantage of Fiber Optic
Fiber Optic on Aircraft Application
• Advantages :-
• It can carry more data.
• Less weight
• It Immune to electromagnetic radiation.

• Application :-
• Aircraft network
Aircraft Network System
Onboard Lan
Electronic Display
• Principle operation of common types of displays used in modern
aircraft including :-
• 1) Cathode Ray Tubes
• 2) Light Emitting Diodes ( LCD )
• 3) Liquid Crystal Display ( LCD )
Controlling The deflection
Cathode Ray Tubes
Light Emitting Diodes ( LED )
LED Display
Liquid Crystal Display
Electrostatic Sensitive Devices ( ESD )
Static Electricity
Positive Triboelectric
Negative Triboelectric
Value Electrostatic
Precautions ESD Warning
Handling ESD Equipment
Wrist Strip
Transporting ESD Equipment
On Aircraft Precautions