Greece and Rome

Geography and the Greek City-States

The geography of the region prevented the Greeks
from creating a large, united empire. Instead, they
built many small city-states, cut off from one another
by mountains or water.

The seas linked the Greeks to the outside world. The

Greeks became skilled sailors, traveling and trading
all over the Mediterranean.
 1

The Minoans
► The Minoans established a
brilliant early
civilization on the island of
Crete.
► The Minoans traded with
Egypt and
Mesopotamia. They
acquired ideas and
technology that they
adapted to their own
culture.
► The Minoans helped to
shape the first Greek
civilization.
 Minoans

► The story of European civilization really begins

on the island of Crete with a civilization that
probably thought of itself as Asian (in fact,
Crete is closer to Asia than it is to Europe).
► Around 1700 BC, a highly sophisticated culture
grew up around palace centers on Crete: the
Minoans.
► This unique culture, of course, lasted only a
few centuries, and European civilization shifts
to Europe itself with the foundation of the
military city-states on the mainland of Greece.
Minoan Religion
 The main deity is still the Mother Goddess, who is
portrayed in different forms such as the "goddess
with the snakes."
 The Bull was also worshipped as a powerful symbol
of fertility beside her.
 Deities were worshipped in sanctuaries of the
palaces, various dwellings, the peak sanctuaries,
and in sacred caves.
 Many of the features of Minoan religion passed into
the cycle of the Greek mystery religions. Most of
the tombs were cut into the soft rock and had a
square burial chamber and a sloping dromos.
 They worshipped them on mountains, in temples on
the ground and in caves. It was believed that gods
and goddesses could live in tress and columns
because these linked the earth and the heavens.
The Minoans had many sacred objects.
 Palaces
► Knossos
► Phaestos
Knossos Layout
 Myceneans
► Mycenaean is the term applied to the art and
culture of Greece from ca. 1600 to 1100 B.C.
► The name derives from the site of Mycenae in the
Peloponnese.
► Mycenae is celebrated by Homer as the seat of
King Agamemnon, who led the Greeks in the
Trojan War.
► In modern archaeology, the site first gained
renown through Heinrich Schliemann's excavations
in the mid-1870s, which brought to light objects
whose opulence and antiquity seemed to
correspond to Homer's description of
Agamemnon's palace.
► Contact with Minoan Crete played a decisive role
in the shaping and development of Mycenaean
culture, especially in the arts.
► Wide-ranging commerce circulated Mycenaean
goods throughout the Mediterranean world from
Spain and the Levant.
► The evidence consists primarily of vases, but their
contents (oil, wine, and other commodities) were
probably the chief objects of trade.
► Mycenaean civilization collapsed between 1200 and
1100 BC. From this time until the beginning of
classical Greek civilization around 800 BC, Greece
is considered to have entered a dark age.
► Within a short time around 1250 BC, all the
palaces of southern Greece were burned, including
the one at Mycenae.
► This is traditionally attributed to a Dorian invasion
of Greeks from the north, although some historians
now doubt that such an invasion took place.
 CLASSICAL GREECE
750-400 BC
► More than 700 years after the fall of Mycenae, a
new civilization flourished in Greece. The cultural
and political life of Greece, and particularly of
Athens, in the 5th century BC was to have a
profound impact on Western civilization.
► In Athens the principles of democracy were
established and scientific and philosophical
reasoning taken to unprecedented heights.
► Also in Athens, architecture and forms of art such
as sculpture and vase painting took on the
Classical styles that still influence the Western
sense of aesthetics.
 Specialization
► Greek wealth, especially in Athens, allowed
for much specialization, to include in
cultural areas
 Architecture
 Philosophy
 Art and Theater
 Literature
 Athletes
► Shipping
► Silver mining and silversmiths
Greek silver coins
 Religion and Education

Temple of Apollo Oracle at Delphi

 Religion
► Zeus’s court included Athena:
scores of subordinate Wisdom, War
deities who had
various responsibilities

Poseidon:
Sea, Apollo:
Earthquakes Truth, Light,
Music, Healing
 Religion
► Over the centuries, Greeks
personified the supernatural
powers they associated with the
natural elements into gods
► They constructed myths that
related the stories of the gods,
their relations with one another,
and their roles in bringing the
world into its present state
► As the gods struggled among
one another, Zeus emerged as Poseidon: God of
paramount ruler Sea and
Earthquakes
 Economic Exchange
► Greek colonization did not produce a
centralized imperial state, but it did sponsor
more communication, interaction, and
exchange than ever before among people of
the Mediterranean
 Greek language and cultural traditions spread
throughout the Mediterranean basin
► Trade occurred among the poleis and
throughout the region
► Shipping was integral to this exchange
► Exported olive oil, wine, and pottery
 Economic Exchange
► City-states were usually built on two levels
 On the hilltop was the acropolis and below was the
living and business area
 The market area called the agora
 Trade included
► Ivory and gems from Egypt
► Elephants from India
► Silk from China
► Wool from countries surrounding Greece
► Purple dye from the eastern countries
► Grain from areas around the Black Sea

Archimedes: “Give me a lever

and I can move the world.”
 4

Greek Philosophers
Some Greek thinkers used observation and
reason to find causes for what happened. The
Greeks called these thinkers philosophers,
meaning “lovers of wisdom.”

SOCRATES PLATO ARISTOTLE

 Archimedes (287-212 B.C)
► Greek mathematician and
engineer
► In the field of geometry, he
identified the relationship of a
sphere and cylinder’s volume.
► Discovered the principle of the
lever and the importance of the
fulcrum
 “Give me a lever and I can
move the world”
 Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.)
► “Father of Medicine”
► Based his medical practice on
observations and on the study of
the human body
► Believed that illness had a
physical and a rational
explanation
 Rejected the views of his time that
considered illness to be caused by
superstitions and by possession of
evil spirits
 Architecture
► The architecture of ancient
Greece is the basis for virtually
all Western architectural
developments
 Invented the entablature,
which allowed roofs to be
hipped (inverted V-shape)
 Used a technique they called
entasis to make their
columns look straight
► Bowed them slightly
outward to compensate
for the optical illusion
that makes vertical lines
look curved from a
distance
Architecture

Doric Ionic Corinthian

Used three orders (Doric, ►

Ionic, Corinthian) to
relate proportionally the
individual architectural
components to the whole
building.
► sports
► Every city-state had a gymnasium where Greek
men exercised and took part in sporting activities.
The Greeks also invented sporting festivals such
as the Olympic Games. This was a festival in
honor of Zeus, the king of the gods, and people
from all over the Greek world assembled to
compete in these games.
► Events included running, wrestling, discus
throwing, and the long jump.
 Greek Tragic Drama
► Theaters were always
outdoors and sat
thousands of people

Theater at Epidaurus
held 14,000 people
 Greek Tragic Drama
► Aeschylus (525-456 B.C.)
 Transformed the tragedy from a dance-
drama led by the chorus to a more
sophisticated dramatic form that
focused on the role of individual actors
► Sophocles (496-406 B.C.)
 Known for his treatment of the
individual and addressing complex
issues
► Euripides (485-406 B.C.)

Sophocles
 3

The Persian Wars

Despite their cultural ties, the
Greek city-states were often
in conflict with one another.
The threat of the powerful
Persian empire united the
Greek city-states.
United, the city-states
defeated the Persians and
ended the threat of Persian
invasions.
 3

The Impact of the Persian Wars

► Victory over the Persians increased the

Greeks’ sense of their own uniqueness.
► Athens emerged as the most powerful
city-state.
► Athens organized the Delian League, an
alliance with other Greek city-states.
► Athens used the Delian League to create
an Athenian empire.
 Delian League
► After the Persian threat subsided, the Greek poleis
had conflicts among themselves
► The poleis formed an alliance called the Delian
League
 Athens supplied most of the military force and the
other poleis provided financial support
 Sparta did not join the league
► The resulting tensions led to the Peloponnesian War
(431-404) in which the poleis divided up into two
sides led by Athens and Sparta
 3

The Age of Pericles

. 495 – 429 BC

After the Persian Wars, Athens enjoyed a golden

age under Pericles.
► Periclean Athens was a direct democracy. In this
form of government, large numbers of citizens take
part in the day-to-day affairs of government.

► Pericles hired architects and sculptors to rebuild the

Acropolis, which the Persians had destroyed.

► Pericles turned Athens into the cultural center of

Greece.
 The Peloponnesian War

►The Peloponnesian War was fought

between two groups of Greek allies. One
was the Peloponnesian League, which
had Sparta as its leader. The other leader
was Athens, which controlled the The
Delian League.
 3
The Peloponnesian War
CAUSES
Many Greeks outside of
Athens resented Athenian
domination.
Sparta formed the
Peloponnesian League to
rival the Delian League.
Sparta encouraged oligarchy,
while Athens supported
democracy.
EFFECTS
Athenian domination of the
Greek world ended.
Athens recovered
economically and remained
the cultural center of Greece.
Corruption and selfish
interests replaced older
ideals.
 Philip II
Ruled Macedonia from 359- ►
336 B.C. and transformed it
into a powerful military
machine
Moved into northern Greece ►
and met little resistance due
to residual effects of
Peloponnesian War
By 338 he had Greece under 
his control
Macedonia
 Alexander the Great
► Philipintended to use Greece as a launching
pad to invade Persia, but he was
assassinated before he could begin his plan
► Instead the invasion of Persia would be left
for Philip’s son Alexander who was just 20
when Philip was assassinated
► Alexander inherited from his father the most
perfectly organized, trained, and equipped
army of ancient times.
 Conquests of Alexander

► Ionia and Anatolia 333

► Syria, Palestine, Egypt 332
► Mesopotamia 331
► Persepolis 331
► King of Persia 330
► India 327
► Returns to Susa 324
► Dies (age 33) 323
 The End of the Empire
►Alexander died in June 323, perhaps as
a result of poisoning
 After Alexander
► After Alexander died, his generals jockeyed for
power and by 275 they had divided up his kingdom
into three large states
 Antigonus took Greece and Macedon
 Ptolemy took Egypt
 Seleuces took the former Achaemenid empire
► The period of Alexander and his successors is
called the Hellenistic period to reflect the broad
influence of Greek culture beyond Greece’s borders
► Hellenism
► During the Hellenistic Age, people throughout
western Asia began to adopt Greek customs
and culture. They worshiped Greek gods,
built Greek-style temples and public
buildings, and went to the gymnasium and
theater. During this period, Greek became an
international language, spoken by educated
people across the Middle East. Shown here
are the ruins of the Temple of Trajan in
Pergamum, which was one of the Hellenistic
cities of Asia.
The Romans
 1

Geography and Rome

Rome is located in the center of
the Italian peninsula. This
location helped the Romans
expand in Italy and beyond.

The Apennine Mountains run

down the center of Italy but are
not too rugged.

Fertile plains supported a

growing population.

Ancestors of the Romans

settled along the Tiber River.
These villages eventually grew
into Rome.
► Etruscan influence
► In early times, the
Romans were dominated
by the Etruscan people of
northern Italy. The
Etruscans lived in
wealthy city-states that
were ruled by kings.
Under their influence,
Rome began to grow
from a small village into
a city. The Etruscans
were skilled artists who
created beautiful wall
paintings and statues in
terra-cotta and bronze.
This bronze statue is of a
mythical creature called a
chimera.
► The Rise of Rome
► in the 6th century BC, Rome was a small
city-state in Italy ruled by kings. By the
end of the 1st century BC, it had
conquered the entire Mediterranean world.
► In 510 BC, Rome became a republic.
► In the 1st century BC, after a series of civil
wars, a general named Octavian (later
known as Augustus) took over the republic
and became Rome’s first emperor.
 Roman Republic
► The Republic
► After the last king was driven out, Rome
became a republic governed by elected
officials called magistrates.
► The most important magistrates were two
consuls who were elected annually and
acted as joint heads of state.
 1

The Roman Republic

In 510 B.C., the Romans drove out the Etruscans and set up a
new government, which they called a republic. In a republic,
some officials are chosen by the people.
 2

Decline of the Republic

Conquered people forced to work as slaves
Huge quantities of grain
Small farmers no longer needed to produce food
New wealth increases corruption

Farmers flock to Rome and other cities looking for jobs

Greed and self-interest replace virtues of simplicity,
hard work, and devotion to duty
► civil wars
► In the 1st century BC, there was a series of bloody
civil wars in which ambitious Roman generals fought
each other for power. The most successful was Julius
Caesar, who made himself ruler of Rome. In 44 BC, a
group of leading senators stabbed Caesar to death,
hoping to save the republic. His assassination only led
to more civil wars.
► Caesar is killed by enemies who feared that he
planned to make himself king of Rome.
► Octavian defeated Mark Antony in a struggle for
power.
► The Roman senate gives Octavian the title of
Augustus, or Exhalted One, and declares him first
citizen.
 Winning an Empire
2

After gaining control of the Italian peninsula, Rome began

to build an empire around the Mediterranean Sea.

► The Romans followed a policy of

imperialism, establishing control
over foreign lands and peoples.

► Carthage, Macedonia, Greece, and

parts of Asia Minor became Roman
provinces, or lands under Roman
rule.
► Roman Conquests
► After defeating Carthage for the final time in
146BC, the Romans destroyed the city.
► The same year saw the destruction of Corinth,
which had led the Greek resistance to Rome.
► Both Corinth and Carthage were burned to the
ground and their people were sold into slavery.
► The Romans founded new cities on their ashes.
 2

The Roman Empire at Its Height

By 133 B.C., Roman power extended from Spain to Egypt.
►The First Emperor
►The final victor of the civil wars was
Octavian, Caesar’s great nephew and
heir. After defeating his enemies, he
became Rome’s first emperor, taking the
name Augustus, meaning “the honored
one.” Under Augustus, who ruled from
27 BC to 14 ce, Rome became a
monarchy.
► The Romans created one of the biggest and
best-organized empires in history.
► Across their state, they built towns and roads,
spreading their way of life.
► By the 2nd century AD, people in far-flung lands
dressed in Roman clothes, used the same
Roman coins, and worshiped Roman gods.
► People were united by language, speaking Latin
in the west and Greek in the east.
► Merchants could travel easily from one place to
another since all the lands around the
Mediterranean belonged to the same single
state.
► The empire’s wealth drew traders from distant
lands, bringing spices from India and silk from
China.
► Growth of the empire ▶
► Until 117 AD, the Roman Empire continued to expand. It reached
its greatest size under Emperor Trajan (ruled 98–117 AD), who
conquered Dacia (modern Romania) and Mesopotamia (modern
Iraq).
► However, his successor, Hadrian (ruled 117–138 AD), believed
that the empire had become too vast to control and gave up
many of Trajan’s conquests .
► Hadrian strengthened the empire with frontier defenses, including
a wall that ran for 73 miles (117 km) across northern Britain .
► ▼Roman soldiers constructed a vast network of straight roads
that enabled their armies and official messengers to move rapidly
throughout the empire.
►▲ buildings
► The Romans were highly skilled builders and
engineers. They pioneered the use of brick and
invented concrete, a new material that was strong
and relatively easy to use. The Romans also began
to use arches to build bridges, aqueducts, and
viaducts across wide valleys and rivers. The
aqueducts, which carried water to towns and
cities, tilted slightly downward to ensure a steady
flow of water.
►▲ farming with slaves
► The Roman Empire depended on slave
labor. In many areas, slaves worked on
huge farming estates owned by wealthy
Romans. These estates were run by a
vilicus (steward), who was usually a slave
himself. The main crops produced on the
estates were wheat, olives, and grapes for
making wine.
Roman Religion
JUPITER - King of the Gods
Jupiter was king of the
Gods. His weapon was
the Thunderbolt (thunder
and lightning).
 CERES

Ceres was the ancient Latin goddess of vegetation,

whose worship merged completely with that of the
Greek goddess Demeter
JUNO

Juno was the majestic queen of the heaven and

wife of Jupiter
 DIANA

Diana, the virgin

huntress, Goddess
of light, a moon
Goddess and also
Goddess to unity
of peoples
VESTA Vesta was the Roman
version of the Greek
goddess Hestia, and
guarded the hearth
and home. She
therefore never
moved from Mount
Olympus. Also she
was bestowed with
perpetual virginity,
which is why her
priestesses were to be
virgins, too, - the
famous Vestal
Virgins.
 BACCHUS

Bacchus is the Roman version of the Greek

god Dionysos. He generally represented as
an ever-young god of wine and jolity, but at
times also of deep thoughtfulness.
 2

Roman Empire and Roman Peace

Augustus laid the foundation for a stable government

that would function well for 200 years. This period was
called the Pax Romana.
Augustus’ reforms
► Created efficient civil service to enforce the laws.
► Opened up high-level jobs to men of talent,
regardless of race.
► Allowed cities and provinces to govern themselves.
► Ordered a census, or population count, in order to
make the tax system more fair.
► Set up a postal service and issued new coins.
► Employed the jobless.
 3

How was Greco-Roman civilization formed?

The Romans borrowed heavily from Greek culture after

they conquered Greece.

At the same time, Roman generals carried achievements

of Roman civilization to conquered lands.

The blending of Roman, Hellenistic, and Greek traditions

produced Greco-Roman civilization.

Trade and travel during the Pax Romana helped spread

this new civilization.
 3
Roman Advances in Literature, History, and
Philosophy

History
Historians wrote about the
rise and fall of Roman power.

Poetry Philosophy
Writers imitated Greek styles in Roman philosophers
prose and poetry. borrowed heavily from the
Virgil praised Rome’s heroic Greeks.
past in the Aeneid.
 3
Roman Advances in Art and Science
Technology
Built roads, bridges, and
harbors throughout empire
Built many aqueducts
Art
Sculptors stressed
realism.
Artists depicted life scenes
in frescoes and mosaics.
Science
Romans left scientific research to
the Greeks.
Ptolemy proposed that Earth was
the center of the universe.
Galen used experiments to prove
a conclusion.
Architecture
Emphasized grandeur
Improved column and
arch
Developed rounded
dome
► The army
► Rome’s success was due to the discipline of its armies and
its ability to win support from the peoples they conquered.
► The best soldiers in the Roman army were the legionaries.
These were heavily armored footsoldiers who carried long
shields and were armed with javelins and short stabbing
swords for close combat.
► Legionaries were Roman citizens who served as full-time
professional soldiers.
► Fighting alongside them were noncitizen soldiers called
auxiliaries.
► The City of Rome
► in the 1st century AD, Rome was the largest city
on Earth, with a population of at least 1,200,000
people, drawn from many different lands.
► It was a city full of magnificent public buildings
including temples, racetracks, theaters,
bathhouses, and the Colosseum, where public
shows were held.
► There were 11 aqueducts, supplying the city with
water, and more than 40 parks and gardens.
 4

Religious Diversity in the Early Empire

As long as people honored Roman gods and acknowledged

the divine spirit of the emperor, they were allowed to
worship other gods as they pleased.

Rome mistrusted Christians because they refused to make

sacrifices to the emperor or honor the Roman gods.

Roman officials persecuted the Christians. Many Christians

became martyrs, people who suffer or die for their
beliefs.
 5
The Empire in Crisis
With the end of the Pax Romana, political and economic
turmoil rocked the Roman empire.
Political Problems
-Emperors were repeatedly
overthrown or assassinated.
-- In one 50-year period, 26
emperors ruled, and only one
died of natural causes.
Economic & Social Problems
- High taxes to support the
army burdened business
people and farmers.
- Poor farmers were forced
to work and live on wealthy
estates.
- Overcultivated farmland
lost its productivity.
 5
Two Reformers
Diocletian
Divided the empire into two parts to
make it easier to govern
Tried to increase the prestige of the
emperor
Fixed prices to slow inflation, or
the rapid rise of prices
Established laws to ensure steady
production of food and goods
Constantine
Continued Diocletian’s reforms
Granted toleration to Christians,
which led to the rapid growth of
Christianity
Built a new capital at
Constantinople, making the
eastern part of the empire the
center of power
 5

Foreign Invasions

A weakened Rome
could not withstand
the forces of
Germanic invasions.

The Huns dislodged

other Germanic
peoples and, little by
little, conquered the
Roman empire.
 5

The Decline and Fall of Rome

►THE RISE OF CHRISTIANITY
► Early Christians were often persecuted by the
Romans, who saw them as a threat to the
stability of the empire because they refused to
acknowledge the divinity of the Roman
emperor.
► By AD 64 Nero used Christians as victims in the
imperial arenas, and in the early 4th century
Diocletian organized campaigns against them.
► Diocletian's successor Constantine legalized
Christianity, and at the first "Ecumenical Council"
(held at Nicaea in 325) he brought church and state
together.
► Constantine had converted to Christianity after a key
victory over his rivals in 312, a victory he ascribed to
the power invested in him as the servant of the
Highest Divinity, which he equated with the Christian
god.
► Many sects emerged during this early spread of
Christianity, and councils were periodically held to
discuss the doctrinal disagreements raised - with
some sects declared heretical as a result.