Chapter 2

Physical and Chemical processes in a blast furnace

Introduction
Understanding of the fundamental nature of the blast furnace
process is of paramount importance in order to develop the
practice to its maximum efficiency and economy.
Much of our efforts have therefore been directed in establishing
the various physical, chemical and thermal processes occurring
in the blast furnace, devise laboratory experiments to determine
data and correlate these, and the inferences drawn therefrom,
with actual practice.
Small experimental blast furnaces (b/fs) have been installed at
a few different places to study the process directly and also to
establish the effects of various practical variables on the quality
and efficiency of production.
Similarly full scale commercial b/fs have also been subjected to
experimentation, particularly towards the end of their useful
campaign. 1
 The Blast Furnace Profiles
Thermal, Physical and chemical profiles
In the blast furnace, solid charge materials like iron ore (or
agglomerated ore), coke and limestone are charged in the
vertical shaft of the f/c at the top and hot air blast is blown
through tuyeres located at the bottom level.

The oxygen from the preheated blast combines with the carbon
of coke and generates heat and CO.
The gas phase containing mainly nitrogen and CO ascend
upwards through the charge which reacts with and extracts heat
from the gas phase.

 Eventually the charge melts and metal and slag thus produced
get stratified and are separated to obtain the metal.
 Fundamentally therefore the blast f/c is a counter-current
reactor.
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The main chemical rxns are the reduction of iron oxide to iron
and the burning of coke.
The iron oxide may get reduced as:
(Fe2O3) + 3(CO) = 3(CO2) + 2(Fe) (2.1)

(Fe2O3) + 3(C) = 3(CO) + 2(Fe) (2.2)

Since the iron oxide is reduced directly by C in eq. (2.2) it has

been referred to as direct reduction of iron oxide.

 The CO generated by burning of the fuel at the tuyeres or by

direct reduction of iron oxide as in eq. (2.2) reduces iron oxide
also as in eq. (2.1) which is referred to as indirect reduction.

The CO required for indirect reduction is essentially generated

at the tuyere level where carbon of coke burns as
2(C) + O2 = 2CO (2.3)
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As the gases rise and carry out the reduction , the CO2 content
of the gas increases and a rxn of the type
(CO2) + (C) = 2(CO) (2.4)

may take place thereby regenerating the reducing gas. This is

known as solution loss rxn.

Limestone and dolomite, if added as a flux in the charge get

calcined as:
(CaCO3) → (CaO) + (CO2) (2.5)

(MgCO3) → (MgO) + (CO2) (2.6)

In the temperature zone of 800-10000C.

 The resulting basic oxides combine with the gangue oxides to

form the slag 4
The reduction of iron oxide is a high temp. process and the
thermal requirements of the process are met by burning coke,
and the enthalpy of the hot blast.

 The maximum temp. is therefore generated in front of the

tuyeres where hot blast burns preheated coke.

 This temp. may be as high as 20000C.

The temperature inside the furnace decreases on either side of

the tuyere level.

The exhaust gas temp. is as low as 2000C and the temp. in the
hearth may be around 1300-15000C depending upon the
chemistry of the slag; a typical temp. being 13500C.

5
The temp. variations inside the f/c along the vertical axis are
shown in Fig. 2.1.

 The pressure and gas composition profiles are shown along

with the temp. profiles.

 The horizontal variations in temp. are shown on the vertical

profile of the b/f.

The gas composition and temp. vary smoothly over the vertical
as well as the horizontal cross section of the f/c.

The chemical processes are therefore continuous from bottom

to top and throughout the volume of the f/c.

6
 Fig. 2.1 Temperature, Pressure and Gas composition profiles in a blast furnace.
(a) Shows the profiles of temperatures in oC in a vertical section, (b) and (c) show the
profiles along the vertical axis of the furnace. 7
Physical structure
The hot blast enters the f/c through the tuyeres at a velocity of
around 200-300 m/s and at a pressure of 2-4 atm.

 Such a high pressure is necessary to push the reducing gases

through the solid burden and to overcome the top pressure, if
any, applied from top.
These conditions create a raceway of 1-2 m in front of each
tuyere.

 Each raceway at its sides and below is bound by rather firm

regions of lump coke which has bypassed oxidation during its
descent through the furnace.

 Studies indicate that this coke extends downwards into the iron
pool and perhaps even to the hearth bricks. This is what has been
shown in Fig. 2.2 as stagnant coke percolator.
8
The top of raceway region is bound by loosely packed lump coke
since gas has to flow upwards through it.

 The bottom most pieces in this region periodically fall into the
raceway and are consumed by the hot blast.

 The coke bed thus, slowly moves down, gets consumed and is
replenished from top.

 The above description indicates that almost all the solid

material in the hearth and bosh is coke alone.

 Liquid iron and slag percolate through this and collect in the
hearth.

The hot gases rising from the raceways heat up the descending
coke and, liquid slag and metal.
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During percolation reduction of iron oxide is completed and it
gets saturated with carbon.

Partial reduction of other oxides like those of P, Si, Mn, etc. also
occur along with and that makes the metal impure.

Studies have shown that the region of loose packed coke above
the raceways is bounded on top by inverted ‘U’ shaped fusion
zone consisting of alternate layers of coke and other charge
materials.

 The structure is shown in Fig. 2.2 .

 The inverted U shape is characteristically an important feature

because it supports the furnace burden, aided by the gas
pressure from below.

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Fig. 2.2 Idealized internal structure of a blast furnace in operation. 11
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Carbon-Oxygen Equilibrium
This is of interest since carbon of the coke is burned by oxygen of the
air blast inside the furnace to generate heat.
The free energy data of relevant reactions are as follows:

<C>g + {O2} = {CO2} …(2.7)

∆Go(2.7) = -94,200-0.2T cal / mol

and {CO2} + <C>g = 2 {CO} …(2.8)

Where the suffix ‘g’ indicates graphite as its standard state.

The forward reaction in Eq. (2.8) is referred to as ‘solution loss’ reaction,

and that in backward direction as ‘Naumann reversion’ and the
equilibrium as a whole is called ‘Boudouard equilibrium’ by the blast
furnace technologists.
Carbon can also burn at high temperatures as
…(2.9)

12
and subtraction of Eqs. (2.7) and (2.9) gives Eq. (2.8)
where ∆Go(2.8) = + 40,800 - 41.7 T

therefore log K(2.8) = -∆Go = - 8910 + 9.11

4.575 T T

It is therefore clear that at temperatures above 10000C the proportion of CO2 in
the gas phase in equilibrium with graphite is negligibly small and similarly below
4000C the concentration of CO2 is negligibly small.
Between these temperature limits, the proportions of both are significant.
The oxygen potential of the gas phase can be conveniently represented by CO /
CO2 ratio in the gas phase.
 If the gas phase containing CO and CO2 is in contact with iron oxide the
possibility and extent of its reduction could be ascertained from the knowledge of
its CO / CO2 ratio and the temperature. 13
Elements of Stoichiometry
 In a b/f iron oxide plus coke are introduced from top and oxygen in the
form of blast through the tuyeres.
 The oxygen part of this charge goes out of the furnace only through the
top via gas phase and the iron only as liquid metal from bottom.
The carbon part of the charge mainly goes out of the furnace in the form
of top gas.

 A small part however goes with the metal as dissolved carbon.

 In essence the amount of coke and blast required to produce a tonne of
iron should therefore be known.
 Similarly the effect of alterations of any parameter(s) on these must
also be known.

Mathematical equations have been developed to describe these.

 Under the simplified conditions that iron joins metal phase alone and
that other side reactions do not occur to interfere the mass balance in a
b/f under steady state conditions can be described as follow:

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15
 … (2.10)

Eq. (2.10) therefore becomes

(nO)B + (O/Fe)x = nCA . (O/C)g …(2.11)

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Eq. (2.11) is the stoichiometric equation for the blast furnace in
its most direct and simplest form.

17
Physical Chemistry of Blast Furnace Process
The physical chemistry of processes occurring inside the blast
furnace at various places can now be discussed in the light of the
above thermodynamic information.
Reactions in the Tuyere Zone
 Coke is the only constituent of the burden that descends down
into the tuyere zone in the form of a solid column.
 During its descent it gets preheated to nearly 15000C by the
time it reaches the tuyere level.
 Such a highly preheated coke burns in front of the tuyeres with
great intensity and turbulence when it comes in contact with
preheated blast at around 800-13000C, generating temperatures
of the order of 1900-20000C.
The combustion zone is in the form of a pear shape called
raceway in which the hot gases rotate at high speed carrying a
small amount of burning coke in suspension.
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The main reactions in the tuyere area is the combustion of coke
as per Eq. (2.7) but in the presence of excess of coke reaction as
in Eq. (2.8) takes place thereby amounting to the overall process
as shown in Eq. (2.9).

There is always some moisture in the blast; it is more in rainy

season and less in summer.

Moisture reacts with hot coke in the tuyere area as:

{H2O} + < C > = {CO} + {H2} …(2.12)

thereby generating additional reducing agent in the form of

hydrogen.

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Reactions in Stack
The functions of blast furnace stack are two fold.
Firstly, it should progressively reduce the iron oxide to iron
using CO of the gas phase and secondly it should extract sensible
heat from the ascending gases and thereby get itself heated.

Kinetics of Iron Oxide Reduction

The gases must react with the solid charge as rapidly as
possible in order to fully utilize their reducing ability.
The factors that affect the rate of reduction of iron oxide are
broadly indicated below:
1. Physical nature of iron oxide;
2. Nature and composition of gangue in the charge;
3. CO content of the gas phase;
4. Temperature of the charge and the gas;
5. Chemical nature of iron oxide;
6. Pressure at the top of the furnace;
7. The extent of solid-solid reaction. 20
Reactions in Bosh
The charge materials begin to soften and fuse as they come
down into the bottom of the stack.
The next lower zone is called bosh in which melting of the
burden, except that of coke, takes place.
 The gangue and flux combine to form the slag.
 The burden permeability in this region is mainly maintained
because of the presence of solid coke.
Reactions in Hearth
Hearth is the part of the furnace where the molten products of
the b/f process accumulate and stay there until these are tapped
out periodically.
 Although most of the coke burns at the tuyere level, a certain
fraction is believed to descend even into the hearth where it
dissolves in the metal to its near saturation.
The entire charge is molten and tends to stratify into slag and
metal layers in the hearth from where these are tapped
separately. 21
Efficiency of the blast furnace process
The performance of a b/f is assessed essentially in terms of its
productivity and coke rate.
The higher is the productivity and lower is the coke rate better
is the furnace performance.
 The productivity of a b/f mainly depends upon the rate of blast
that can be pushed through the furnace. This is called the ‘driving
rate’ of a b/f. For higher productivity, the furnace is driven hard.
The more is the blast the more is the oxygen pushed in for
combustion of coke and more is the rate of coke burning and
consequently more heat generation.
 This will result in more rate of melting of the charge as well as
higher rate of stack reduction.
Harder driving is possible only if the charge is permeable inside
the furnace.
 Permeability can be improved by preparing the charge burden,
i.e. making it more suitable, and obtaining better distribution
inside the furnace. 22
THE END

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