INTRODUCTION

RESEARCH METHODS

COMPILED
MA. SOCORRO A. GACUTAN
2013
What is Research?
Report- compiled information without
making evaluations or interpreting it
Research paper- documented report +
evaluation and interpretation of the
information . The researcher is
expected to develop a point of view
toward your material, take a stand,
express some original thought.
Qualities of a Research
1. The research paper synthesizes your
discoveries about the topic and your
judgment and interpretation
evaluations and other discoveries.
2. The research paper is a work that
shows originality- processes,
evaluation, synthesis that are truly
personal
3. The research paper acknowledges all
sources used
4. The research paper shows scholarly
works
A RESEARCH PAPER IS NOT
-a summary of article or a book
-Ideas of others, repeatedly uncritically,
do not make a research paper
-a series of quotations
-unsubstantiated personal opinion
-copying or accepting another person’s
work without acknowledging it-
plagiarism
STAGES OF DOING A RESEARCH
Goal of Research
• To learn from a study you undertake
• To present your material competently
• To earn a high grade
Step 1. Choosing a Subject
• Novel
• Personal interest
• Role of economics
• Specific
• Time bound
What is research?
Research is simply a systematic and
refined technique of thinking,
employing specialized tools,
instruments and procedures in order
to obtain a more adequate solution of
a problem than would be possible
under ordinary means. It starts with
problem, data collection, analyzes
these critically, and reaches decisions
based on actual evidence. It involves
original work instead of a mere
exercise of personal opinion. It
evolves from a genuine desire to
know rather than a desire to prove
something. It is quantitative, seeking
to know not only what but how much
and measurement is therefore a
central feature of it (Crawford, 1046).
What is a thesis?
A thesis may be defined as the report of
the scholar upon some piece of
research which has been completed.
It is the culmination of devious
process extending from the initial
insight into the opportunity for
investigation to the insertion of final
footnote. Many elements are
involved, and each offers the
possibility of raising or lowering the
quality of the product. Most
important of all in determining the
character of the results, however, are
the fundamental aims of the writer
which should be an undeviating
search for truth, and original in
substance (Cole and Bigelow, 1935)
Step 2. Collecting information
• Plan! Plan! Plan!
• Find various sources of info
• Read, look, listen
• record
Step 3. Evaluating Materials
• Reliability of information
• Availability of materials
• Proper organization of information
Step 4. Organize Ideas
• Logical arrangement of information
Step 5. Writing the Paper
• Acquired info are organized
• Draft a copy, make an outline to
follow
• Document sources of information
APA
• Revise
• Edit - better get a proof-reader!!
Importance of doing a Research
• follow a definite procedure
• Become a better reader
• Sense of achievement
• Well-informed about the subject
• Learn to use other resources,
electronic, library,
• Establish yourself as individual
• Exercise critical thinking
Managing your time
• Use timetable and checklist
• Do not procrastinate
• Have regular workplace and time
• Do not try to fight every distraction
• Discipline yourself
Choosing a General Topic
Qualities of a good topic
• Enable to fulfil your assignment
• Interest you enough to work on it
• Topic will teach you something
• Manageable in scope
• You can bring something to the topic
• enough information to the topic
• The topic is suitable to your audience
• The topic lets you demonstrate all
your abilities that a research paper is
meant to show
Methods of research
1. Historical
To reconstruct the past objectively and
accurately, often in relation to
tenability of a hypothesis
2. Descriptive
To describe systematically a situation or
area of interest factually and
accurately
3. Developmental
To develop patterns and sequences of
growth and/or change as a function
of time
4. Case and field studies
To study extensively the background,
current status, and environmental
interactions of a given social unit: an
individual, a group, an institution, or
a community
5. Correlational
To investigate the extent to which the
variation in one factor correlate in
one or more other factors on
correlation coefficients
6. Causal-comparative
to investigate possible cause and effect
relationship by observing some
existing consequences and looking
back through the data for plausible
and causal factors
7. Experimental
To investigate possible cause and effect
relationships by exposing one or
mere experimental groups to one or
more control groups not receiving
the treatment, random assignment
being essential.
8. Quasi-experimental
To approximate the conditions of the
true experiment in setting which
does not allow the control or
manipulation of all relevant factors.
The researcher must clearly
understand what compromises exist
in the internal and external validity of
the design and proceed within these
limitations.
9. Action research
To develop new skills or new approaches
and to solve problems with direct
application to the classroom or other
direct setting
Focusing on a Subject To research
Five possible approaches to a research
Clustering- you write down your ideas in subject
a way that shows their relationships.
1. Examine or analyze the subject
Begin by writing your topic in the
center of a page and enclosing it in a 2. Evaluate or criticize the subject
small circle. Then start your 3. Compare and contrast things or ideas
imagination or “stream of 4. Establish relationships among ideas
consciousness” working. As ideas 5. Argue for or against something
occur to you, arrange them in
relation to one another, with more
circled words and more lines showing
which ideas stem from which others.

Subdividing – an organized way to

narrow a topic: divide it into
progressively smaller units. Continue
subdividing the topic until you reach
a subject you’re interested in to
research.
Choosing a title
• The title is a brief descriptive label
that subsumes the theme of the
study as a whole.
• names the major variables that are
the subject of investigation.
• answers the questions of “what”,
“where”, and “who”.
• Avoid the use of “when info”
• Phrases like “A Study of” , “An
Evaluation” “Proposed..” are avoided.
• Eyecatching, thought provoking so as
to tiltillate the minds of the reader, to
arouse the curiosity of the reader
brief
Theory –refers to the organized body of
knowledge or a set of propositions
that is firmly grounded on a series of
observed phenomena, events or
empirical data that are duly
supported by the thinking of a well-
known authorities on the subject.
When forming a theory for the study, the
researcher may ask the following
questions:
1. What are the existing specific and
concrete facts, issues, or events that
are observed regarding questionable
educational, psychological,
technological or social outcomes and
practices that pose a challenge for in-
depth investigation?

2. What theory or theoretical bases can
be evolved out of these facts and
objective evidences for the purposes
of research undertaking
3. Who are the well-known authorities-
sources that can be cited to support
the researcher’s developed theory
From the answers derived thereof, the
researcher can set up his own theory
or theoretical basis on his study.
Theory Construction
Step 1. facts observed
1. students who are given practicum
exercises for home assignment on the
subject matter learned in class, be it a skill
subject or a content subject, get higher
grade in the achievement tests given for
the purpose.
2. On the other hand, students who are not
given any practicum exercises for home
assignments get lower grades when the
corresponding achievement tests are
given.
Step 2. Evolvement of the researchers
own theory
learning takes place through self-activity. It is
through continuous individual practice on
the learned subject matter that more
learning takes place. If the student in
Statistics is given practicum exercises for
home assignments on the new subject
matter learned in class, he will learn more
of the new concepts or formulas taught
Step 3. citing well-known authorities,
sources to support the researcher’s
evolved theory Cite well-known
authorities
Skinner (1986: 5-6) “we learn by doing”
Gilmer (1970:280) “learning is a change of
behavior or operation that takes place
through practice and experience”.
Reason for presenting the
researcher’s own theoretical
framework:
to provide the needed frame of
reference by which to
understand how the research
problem was evolved and to
justify the formulation of the
research hypothesis and the
planned study as a whole.
Variable- refers to a factor,
characteristic, or a condition of
a person, group of persons, a
thing, a program, an event, an
approach, etc. which takes on
values that can be measured
categorically and
quantitatively. Examples of
variables: independent and
dependent
CHAPTER I: The Problem
Starts with an introductory statement enumerating the topical
sections
Introduction
1. Statement of the problem (main and sub problems
2. Assumptions
3. Theoretical framework
4. Importance of the study
5. Limitation
6. delimitation of the study
Statement of the Problem
Main problem- expressed in declarative statement that is more or
less consistent with the title of the study.
Followed by the sub-problems which are usually stated in question
form
Example:
The primary purpose of this study is to determine if there is a
significant relationship between giving assignments to higher
grades of the students.
More specifically, it attempted to answer the following questions:
Choosing a research problem
• Original or novel
• Relevant to society’s needs and to
one’s field of specialization
• Contribute to country’s national
development
• Express relationship between
variables
• Employ empirical testing
Assumptions- a proposition which a
researcher asserts based on his own
intuition, experience, and
observations but which is not
scientifically proven. It is adopted in
the premise to the solution of the
problem envisioned in the study.
in absence of a null hypothesis, an
assumption is made.
Hypothesis- is the researcher’s tentative
inference or speculation on what he
believes the outcome of the study
would be. When the null hypothesis
is rejected, it is the research
hypothesis that serves as the
concluding statement that confirms
the researcher’s speculation as to the
expected result or outcome that
answers the hypothesized sub-
problem. Basic characteristics of a
hypothesis:
1. Reasonable
2. Consistent with known facts or
theories
3. Should be stated in such a way that it
can be tested and found to be
probably true or probably false
4. Stated in simplest possible terms
Importance of the study- discusses the
importance of the study to the
society, the country, the government,
the community, the institution, the
agency concerned and the researcher
himself.
gives justification for the study in terms
of contribution to theory and
practice.
touches on the significance of the study
to the researches himself, what it
does to his profession, and the
differences it makes to his own
professional growth.
Limitation-conditions beyond control of
the researcher that may place
restrictions on the conclusions of the
study and their application to other
situations
Delimitation – explained in this section
the nature, coverage, and time frame
of the study. It present in brief the
subject areas of investigation, the
number of respondents or subjects
involved, the place, the time or
period or school year covered, and
the rationale behind delimiting the
scope of the study.
Definition of terms
The conceptual and operational
definition of terms that are found in
the title of the study, including the
other unusual and technical terms. It
is cautioned to refrain from using
conceptual or dictionary definitions
of the terms presented.
Chapter 2. Review of related literature
and studies
Embodies the cited theories, principles,
concepts, facts, ideas, and views
regarding the pertinent variables or
aspects as gleaned from books,
research journals, monographs and
other scholarly publications.
Use primary or secondary sources of
reference
Use of verbatim-quoted and paraphrased
statements.
1. design of the study, including
procedures employed and data
gathering used
2. Populations that were sampled;
sampling method used
3. Variables were defined
4. Extraneous variables that could have
affected the findings
5. Faults that could be avoided
6. Recommendations for further
research

Related studies- cited studies of thesis

authors and others who have
conducted researches abroad and in
the Philippines. Researcher should
avoid the following:
1. Reports of closely related studies that
have been investigated
Chapter 3. Research Design and
Procedure
1. Research methods used
2. Research instruments
3. Research locale
4. Population universe and subjects of
the study
5. Sampling procedure
6. Research design
7. Statistical treatment
1. 1.Research methods used
2. Descriptive
3. Correlational
4. Causal-comparative
5. Historical, experimental, quasi-
experimental
6. and other special types of research
(survey research)
Survey research- use questionnaires and
interviews to determine opinions,
attitudes, preferences, and
perceptions of interest to the
researcher.
2. Research Instrument-describe in this
section is the instrument used. The
nature, purpose, construction, cross-
validation, pre-testing, and rationale
for its use are explained. Such
instruments are aptitude test,
psychological tests and other
standardized tests. Personal
interviews, observation techniques,
laboratory devices, documentary
research and analysis are likewise
used and explained. For personal
interviews, an interview guide has to
be prepared for the purpose and be
included as an appendix.
3. Research Locale –section describes in
brief where the study was conducted
and the rationale behind its choice. A
map showing the exact location in
relation to the community and its
neighboring towns is included.
4. Population Universe and the Subject
of the Study
Population universe –refers to the
defined population of individuals that
possess the characteristics which are
of interest to the researcher for
inferential purposes.
Sample or sampling group- is the portion
of that population that is chosen for
the study for the purpose of drawing
inference from the sample to the
population of interest.
5. Sampling Procedure-describes in
detail the sampling procedure used
in the choice of subjects of the study.
Its purpose is to show how the
sample group/s was selected and
whether it is representative of the
population of interest.
Strategies for selecting samples:
• Random sampling-each person has
an equal chance of being included.
(Lottery)
• Non-random sampling or quota
sampling
• Simple random sampling-assigning
numbers to all samples and selecting
numbers at regular intervals
Stratified sampling-subjects are
deliberately selected from a variety
of levels or types of people in the
population. ex: samples are selected
from lower, middle, higher class of
the same proportion
Probability sampling-selection of
respondents based on the knowledge
of the groups of people comprising
the population. Estimates might be
made of the number of people in
different religious faiths in the
general population. The samples
might be drawn from each religious
groups at random. With the
stipulation that the number selected
from each religious groups be in
proportion to the total number of
such individuals in population.
Area sampling- sampling techniques
selects its respondents from
geographical boundaries that are
defined and identifiable; most often
the individuals selected in the area
sampling are identified by dwelling
units within the area.
Cluster sampling-requires the selection
of respondents from a defined group
or areas. Selecting a sample from
eight blocks, five cities, three classes
of general-psychology students or
any other selected and defined
segment of the population is the
essence of cluster sampling.
Characteristics of sample size:
• The larger the sample, the lesser
the magnitude of error
• Survey-type studies should have
larger samples
• When sample groups are to be
subdivided into smaller group,
select large enough samples
• In mailed questionnaires, since
the responses may be 20% to 30
%, select a large sample
• Subject availability and cost
factors are to be considered.
Types of statistical analysis
Three types of statistical techniques
1. Descriptive statistics
2. Inferential statistics
3. Test statistics
Descriptive statistics also known as
summary statistics-used to “describe”
the data that have been collected on
a research sample.
The mean, median and standard
deviation are the main descriptive
statistics.
They are used to indicate the average
score and variability of scores for the
sample
2. Inferential statistics-are used to make
inferences for sample statistics to the 3. Test statistics- sometimes called test
population parameters. statistics. These are mathematical
Descriptive values such as mean , median methods for describing and analyzing
and standard evaluation are usually the psychometric properties of tests
referred to as statistics if they are and other instruments.
computed from a score of a sample
of subjects. The same values are
referred to as parameters if they are
computed from the scores of the
total population.

Advantages:
To estimate the probability that the
observations made in one sample is
also true to the larger sample.
To infer whether a pattern of
observations was due to a particular
independent variable or whether it
might well have been due to chance
alone
COLLECTION OF DATA
Data-according to Whitney (1950) data
are the raw materials of reflection,
until by comparison, combination
and evaluation, they are stepped up
to the higher levels of generalization,
where again they serve as basic
materials for higher thinking.
Data constitute “an accepted quantity,
number, facts, or relation used as a
basis for drawing conclusions, making
inferences, or carrying out
investigations”.
Types of data:
1. Primary data-
Official records and other documentary
materials minutes of meeting,
reports of legislative bodies, sample
of students works, will, deed,
textbook, examinations, interviews,
autobiographies; relics like buildings,
furniture, teaching materials,
paintings
2. Secondary report-sources of data are
the reports of the person who relates
the testimony of an actual witness of,
or participating an event. Example:
encyclopedia, history books.
Techniques in Data Collection Observation-a researcher may study the
1. Observation characteristics of a school building by
2. Interview observing and recording such aspects
a. material of construction
3. Inquiry forms
b. Rooms for various purposes
Questionnaire
c. Size of room
a.Opinion or attitude scale
d. Amount of furniture
b.Social distance
e. Others
c.Sociometry
d.“Guess-who” techniques
The adequacy of these data are
e. Sociometry compared to a standard
4. Psychological test Observation is used to study behavior.
5. Library Technique Observing the activities of children in
a playground, classroom setting or
any environment
Observation as a research technique is
planned, systematic, objective ,
focused and carefully recorded.
Check for validity, reliability
Types of Observation
1. Naturalistic-watching and describing
behavior as it occur .in natural
setting. No attempt to alter or
manipulate the behavior.
Behaviors are coded.
Category scheme developed by Bales is a
system of observing interpersonal
behavior. All social interactions are
coded into one of the twelve
categories such as disagreeing, giving
suggestions, asking for opinion,
showing tension, etc. These category
is used to describe the pattern of
leadership, subgroup and alliances.
2. Participant Observation—the
researcher becomes actively involved
in the lives of the people without the
knowledge of the community
understudy about the intention of
the researcher
3. Unobstrusive observation- observer is
not visible in the setting or they do
not play an active role. One-way
mirror, hidden camera and films are
some ways of the technique.
Devices for recording observation
Check list- list of items
Rating scale –involves qualitative
description of a limited number of a
thing, or traits of a person. Example:
superior, excellent, always, above
average, below average good,
always, frequently, occasionally,
rarely, inferior, poor, never
Score card-similar to check list and rating
scale . In addition, the presence of
each characteristic or aspect, or the
rating assigned to each, has a
predetermined point value.
Standards for observers and their
observations
1. Carefully planned, systematic and
perceptive
2. Observers are aware of the
wholeness of what is being observed
3. Observers are objectives
4. Observations are carefully and
expertly recorded.
INTERVIEW- oral questionnaire. The
interviewee gives the needed
information in a face to face
relationship.
Do’s and don’ts in interviewing
1. don’t argue
2. Don’t appear learned
3. Don’t use big words
4. Don’t irritate worn spots
5. Don’t tell inapproproate stories
6. Don’t talk too much
QUESTIONNAIRE 2.Unrestricted or open form –
1. Closed form Why did you choose to take your work at
this university?_________________
Why did you choose to do your graduate
work at this university? Kindly Principles in constructing questionnaires
indicate three reasons in order of 1. Define or qualify terms that could
importance using the number 1 for easily be misunderstood.
the most important, 2 for the second
most important, 3 for the third most
important What is the value of your house?
2. Be careful in using descriptive
adjectives and adverbs that have no
Convenience of transportation___ agreed-upon meaning.
Advice of a friend ____ Frequently, occasionally, rarely
Reputation of the institute ____
Expense factor ____ 3. Be careful with inadequate
Scholarship aid ____ alternatives
Others (kindly specify) ____ Married yes_____ no____
4. Beware of double negatives
Do you opposed to not requiring
students to take showers after gym
class?
5. Avoid double -barreled questions
Do you believe that gifted students
should be placed in separate groups
for instructional purposes and
assigned to special works?
5 when asking for ratings or comparisons
a point of reference is necessary
How would you rate this student
teacher’s classroom teaching
Superior___ average___
below average___
Avoid unwarranted assumptions
8. Are you satisfied with the salary raise
that you received last year?
9. Phrase questions so that they are
appropriate for all respondents
What is your monthly teaching salary?
Your salary per month?
Number of months per school term?
Number of salary payment per year?
10 design questions that will give
complete answers
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