CHED 124 CHEMISTRY FOR

ENGINEERING
Chapter 1
The Chemical World
Measurement and Problem Solving

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1

Chemistry—
The science that seeks to understand
what matter does by studying what
atoms and molecules do.

Virtually everything around us is

composed of chemicals.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 2

 All Things Are Made
of Atoms and Molecules

• Atoms and molecules are tiny particles

that compose all common matter.

• Chemical bonds are the attachments that

hold atoms together.

• The atoms are bound together to form

several different types of molecules.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 3
 The Scientific Method:
How Chemists Think
• Ways to understand the world:
Chemists use the scientific method—a
way of learning that emphasizes
observation and experimentation—

• to produce knowledge as the result of the

senses.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 4

 The Scientific Method
• Observations involve measuring or
observing some aspect of nature.
• Hypotheses are tentative interpretations
of the observations.
• Laws summarize the results of a large
number of observations.
• Theories are models that explain and give
the underlying causes for observations
and laws.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 5
• Hypotheses, laws, and theories must be
tested and validated by experiment.

• If they are not confirmed, they are revised

and tested through further
experimentation.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 6

 Observation
• Some observations can be made with the
naked eye.
• Other observations emerge from
experiments that rely on the use of
sensitive instrumentation.
• Observation usually involves the
measurement or description of some
aspect of the physical world.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 7

 Example: Antoine Lavoisier (1743–
1794), a French chemist, made an
observation about the physical world.

• Lavoisier measured the property of mass

in the process of combustion.
• The mass of an object is a measure of the
quantity of matter within it.
• Combustion means burning.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 8

 Observations lead scientists to formulate a
hypothesis, a tentative interpretation or
explanation of the observations.
• A good hypothesis is falsifiable, which means that
further testing has the potential to prove it wrong.
• Hypotheses are tested by experiments, highly
controlled observations designed to validate or
invalidate hypotheses.
• The results of an experiment may confirm a
hypothesis or show it to be mistaken in some way.
• The hypothesis may have to be modified or
discarded and replaced by an alternative.
• The new or revised hypothesis must also be
tested through further experimentation.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 9
 A number of similar observations lead to
the development of a scientific law,
a brief statement that synthesizes past
observations and predicts future ones.

• Lavoisier developed the Law of

Conservation of Mass, which states, “In
a chemical reaction matter is neither
created nor destroyed.”

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 10

 One or more well-established hypotheses
may form the basis for a scientific theory.
• Theories provide a broader and deeper
explanation for observations and laws.
• They are models of the way nature is.
• They often predict behavior that extends
well beyond the observations and laws on
which they are founded.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 11

The scientific method

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 12

 Theories are tested and validated
by experiments.

• If a law, hypothesis, or theory is

inconsistent with the findings of an
experiment, it must be revised and new
experiments must be conducted to test the
revisions.
• Over time, poor theories are eliminated
and good theories—those consistent with
experiments—remain.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 13
 Example: The Atomic Theory of
John Dalton (1766–1844)
• Dalton explained the
law of conservation of
mass by proposing that
all matter was
composed of small,
indestructible particles
called atoms.
• Dalton’s theory was a
model of the physical
world—it went beyond
the laws and
observations of the time
to explain these laws
and observations.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 14
 Scientific Theories

• Established theories with strong

experimental support are the most
powerful pieces of scientific knowledge.
• People unfamiliar with science sometimes
say, “That is just a theory,” as if theories
were mere speculations.
• Well-tested theories are as close to truth
as we get in science.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 15

 The idea that all matter is made of atoms
is a theory with two hundred years of
experimental evidence to support it.
• Modern technology
provides recent
images, such as this
one, of atoms
themselves. This image
shows the Kanji
characters for “atom”
written with individual
iron atoms on top of a
copper surface.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 16
 Scientific Notation:
Writing Large and Small Numbers
• A number written in scientific notation has two parts.
• A decimal part: a number that is between 1 and 10.
• An exponential part: 10 raised to an exponent, n.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 17

• A positive exponent means 1 multiplied by 10 n
times.

• A negative exponent (–n) means 1 divided by 10 n

times.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 18

 To convert a number to scientific
notation:

• Move the decimal point to obtain a number

between 1 and 10.

• Multiply that number (the decimal part) by 10

raised to the power that reflects the movement
of the decimal point.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 19

 To convert a number
to scientific notation

• If the decimal point is moved to the left,

the exponent is positive.

• If the decimal is moved to the right, the

exponent is negative.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 20

 Significant Figures:
Writing Numbers to Reflect
Precision
Pennies come in whole numbers, Our knowledge of the amount of
and a count of seven pennies gold in a 10-g gold bar depends on
means seven whole pennies. how precisely it was measured.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 21

Scientific numbers are reported so that every digit
is certain except the last, which is estimated.

The first four digits are certain; the last digit is estimated.

The greater the precision of the measurement, the

greater the number of significant figures.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 22

Counting significant figures in a
correctly reported measurement
1. All nonzero digits are significant.
2. Interior zeros (zeros between two numbers) are
significant.
3. Trailing zeros (zeros to the right of a nonzero number)
that fall after a decimal point are significant.
4. Trailing zeros that fall before a decimal point are
significant.
5. Leading zeros (zeros to the left of the first nonzero
number) are NOT significant. They only serve to locate
the decimal point.
6. Trailing zeros at the end of a number, but before an
implied decimal point, are ambiguous and should be
avoided.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 23
 Exact Numbers
Exact numbers have an unlimited
number of significant figures.
• Exact counting of discrete objects
• Integral numbers that are part of an equation
• Defined quantities
• Some conversion factors are defined quantities while
others are not.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 24

Examples:

0.0035 two significant figures

1.080 four significant figures
2371 four significant figures
2.9×7105 three significant figures
1 dozen = 12 unlimited significant figures
100.00 five significant figures
100,000 ambiguous
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 25
 Significant Figures in Calculations
Rules for Rounding:

• When numbers are used in a calculation, the result is

rounded to reflect the significant figures of the data.

• For calculations involving multiple steps, round only

the final answer— do not round off between steps.
This prevents small rounding errors from affecting the
final answer.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 26

• Use only the last (or leftmost) digit being dropped to
decide in which direction to round—ignore all digits to
the right of it.

• Round down if the last digit dropped is 4 or less; round

up if the last digit dropped is 5 or more.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 27

• Use only the last (or leftmost) digit being dropped to
decide in which direction to round—ignore all digits to
the right of it.

• Round down if the last digit dropped is 4 or less; round

up if the last digit dropped is 5 or more.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 28

Significant Figures in Calculations
Multiplication and Division Rule:

The result of multiplication or division

carries the same number of significant
figures as the factor with the fewest
significant figures.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 29

The intermediate result is rounded to two
significant figures to reflect the least
precisely known factor (0.10), which has
two significant figures.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 30

The intermediate result is rounded to three
significant figures to reflect the least
precisely known factor (6.10), which has
three significant figures.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 31

Significant Figures in Calculations
Addition and Subtraction Rule:

In addition or subtraction
calculations, the result carries
the same number of decimal
places as the quantity carrying
the fewest decimal places.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 32

We round the intermediate answer to two
decimal places because the quantity with
the fewest decimal places (5.74) has two
decimal places.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 33

 We round the intermediate answer to one
decimal place because the quantity with the
fewest decimal places (4.8) has one decimal
place.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 34

 Calculations Involving Both
Multiplication/Division and
Addition/Subtraction
In calculations involving both multiplication/division
and addition/subtraction,
•do the steps in parentheses first; determine the
correct number of significant figures in the
intermediate answer without rounding;
•then do the remaining steps.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 35

In the calculation 3.489 × (5.67 – 2.3);

do the step in parentheses first. 5.67 – 2.3 = 3.37

Use the subtraction rule to determine that the intermediate answer has
only one significant decimal place.
To avoid small errors, it is best not to round at this point; instead,
underline the least significant figure as a reminder.

3.489 × 3.37 = 11.758 = 12

Use the multiplication rule to determine that the
intermediate answer (11.758) rounds to two significant figures (12)
because it is limited by the two significant figures in 3.37.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 36

The Basic Units of Measurement
The unit system for science measurements,
based on the metric system, is called the
International System of units (Système
International d’unités) or SI units.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 37

• The standard of
length The definition of a
meter, established by
international agreement in
1983, is the distance that
light travels in vacuum in
1/299,792,458 s.
(The speed of light is
299,792,458 m/s.)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 38

• The standard of mass
The kilogram is defined
as the mass of a block of
metal kept at the
International Bureau of
Weights and Measures at
Sèvres, France. A
duplicate is kept at the
National Institute of
Standards and
Technology near
Washington, D.C.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 39

• The standard of
time The second is
defined, using an atomic
clock, as the duration of
9,192,631,770 periods of
the radiation emitted from
a certain transition in a
cesium-133 atom.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 40

• The kilogram is a measure of mass, which is
different from weight.
• The mass of an object is a measure of the
quantity of matter within it.
• The weight of an object is a measure of the
gravitational pull on that matter.
• Consequently, weight depends on gravity while
mass does not.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 41

Prefix Multipliers

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 42

• Choose the prefix multiplier that is most
convenient for a particular measurement.
• Pick a unit similar in size to (or smaller than) the
quantity you are measuring.
• A short chemical bond is about 1.2 × 10–10 m.
Which prefix multiplier should you use?
• The most convenient one is probably the
picometer. Chemical bonds measure about 120
pm.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 43

 Derived Units
• A derived unit is formed from other units.
• Many units of volume, a measure of space, are
derived units.
• Any unit of length, when cubed (raised to the
third power), becomes a unit of volume.
• Cubic meters (m3), cubic centimeters (cm3), and
cubic millimeters (mm3) are all units of volume.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 44

 Problem Solving
And Unit Conversions
Units
• Always write every number with its associated
unit
• Always include units in your calculations
– you can do the same kind of operations on units as
you can with numbers
• cm × cm = cm2
• cm + cm = cm
• cm ÷ cm = 1
– using units as a guide to problem solving is called
dimensional analysis
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 45
• Many problems in Chemistry use
relationships to convert one unit to another
• Conversion Factors are relationships
between two units which -
• Conversion factors are generated from
equivalence statements:
– e.g. 1 inch = 2.54 cm can give or
2.54cm 1in
1in 2.54cm

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 46

• Arrange conversion factors so starting unit
cancels
– Arrange conversion factor so starting unit is on the
bottom of the conversion factor
• May string conversion factors
– So we do not need to know every relationship, as
long as we can find something else the beginning
and ending units are related to

unit 2
unit 1 x = unit 2
unit 1
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 47
 Solution Maps
• Solution map = a visual outline showing
strategic route required to solve a
problem
• For unit conversion, the solution map
focuses on units and how to convert one
to another
• For problems that require equations, the
solution map focuses on solving the
equation to find an unknown value

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 48

 Systematic Approach

1) Write down given amount and unit

2) Write down what you want to find and unit
3) Write down needed conversion factors or
equations
a) Write down equivalence statements for each
relationship
b) Change equivalence statements to conversion
factors with starting unit on the bottom

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 49

4) Design a solution map for the problem
– order conversions to cancel previous units or
– arrange Equation so Find amount is isolated
5) Apply the steps in the solution map
– check that units cancel properly
– multiply terms across the top and divide by
each bottom term
6) Check the answer to see if its reasonable
– correct size and unit

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 50

 Example: Convert 7.8 km to miles
1. Write down the Given Given: 7.8 km
quantity and its unit
2. Write down the quantity Find: ? miles
you want to Find and unit

3. Write down the appropriate Conversion 1 km = 0.6214 mi

Conversion Factors Factors:

4. Write a Solution Map Solution km mi

Map: 0.6214 mi
1 km
5. Follow the Solution Map to Solution: 0.6214 mi
Solve the problem 7.8 km   4.84692 mi
1 km
6. Sig. Figs. and Round Round: 4.84692 mi = 4.8 mi

7. Check Check: Units & Magnitude are

correct
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 51
 Solving Multiple Conversion
Problems
• Each step in the solution map should have a
conversion factor with the units of the previous
step in the denominator and the units of the
following step in the numerator.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 52

Example:
• An Italian recipe for making creamy pasta
sauce calls for 0.75 L of cream. Your
measuring cup measures only in cups.
How many cups should you use?

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 53

An Italian recipe for making Information
creamy pasta sauce calls Given: 0.75 L
for 0.75 L of cream. Your Find: ? cu
measuring cup measures C.F: 4 cu = 1 qt;
only in cups. How many 1.057 qt = 1 L
cups should you use? Solution Map: L  qt  cu
1.057 qt 4 cu
1L 1 qt

• Apply the Solution Map:

1.057 qt 4 cu
0.75 L  
1L 1 qt
= 3.171 cu
• Sig. Figs. & Round:
= 3.2 cu
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 54
 Units Raised to a Power
• When converting quantities with units raised to a
power, the conversion factor must also be
raised to that power.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 55

Example:
• A circle has an area of 2,659 cm2. What is
the area in square meters?

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 56

• Conversion Factor:

1 cm = 0.01m
(1 cm)2 = (0.01m)2
1 cm2 = 1 x 10-4 m2

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 57

Example: Information
A circle has an area of Given: 2,659 cm2
2,659 cm2. What is the Find: ? m2
area in square meters? Conv. Fact. 1 cm = 0.01 m
Sol’n Map: cm  m  1 cm 
2
2 2  0.01 m 
 

• Apply the Solution Map:

110-4 m 2
2,659 cm 2   m2
1 cm 2
= 0.265900
• Sig. Figs. & Round: m2
= 0.2659 m2

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 58

 Density
• Ratio of mass:volume
• Solids = g/cm3
– 1 cm3 = 1 mL Mass
• Liquids = g/mL
Density 
Volume
• Gases = g/L
• Volume of a solid can be determined by water
displacement – Archimedes Principle
• Density : solids > liquids >>> gases
– except ice is less dense than liquid water!

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 59

 Density as a Conversion
Factor
• Can be used as a conversion factor between mass
and volume.

– density of H2O = 1 g/mL \ 1 g H2O = 1 mL H2O

– density of Pb = 11.3 g/cm3 \ 11.3 g Pb = 1 cm3 Pb

• How much does 4.0 cm3 of Lead weigh?

4.0 cm3 Pb x 11.3 g Pb = 45 g Pb

1 cm3 Pb
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 60
 Example:

• The gasoline in an automobile gas tank has a mass of

60.0 kg and a density of 0.752 g/cm3. What is the
volume?
• Given: 60.0 kg
• Find: Volume in L
• Conversion Factors:
– 0.752 grams/cm3
– 1000 grams = 1 kg

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 61

• Solution Map: kg  g  cm3

3
1000 g 1 cm
60.0 kg    7.98 10 cm
4 3
1 kg 0.752 g

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 62