Chapter 7 Presentation

The Manager as Leader:

Motivation and Leadership
Across Culture
Contents
 Motivation Across Cultures

 Theories Around Motivation

 Designing Motivating Jobs

 Leadership Across Cultures

 Western Leadership Theory

 Non-western Theories of Leadership

 Question and Discussion

What is Motivation?

Willingness of individuals to bear effort in order to

reach goal
Theories of Motivation
Content Theories
 Describe motivation as the NEEDS that people
seek to satisfy

 Several studies:

Maslow Hierarchy of Needs (1954)

Mc Clelland (1961)
 Attention!
Content Theories might be not suitable for collectivist society
(Peterson & Wood, 2008)
Geert Hofstede’s Study
Content Theories
Three Needs Theory
Mc Clelland (1961)
- Research in US:
High in need for achievement,
strive for personal success
- Cross cultural study:
Literatures containing greater
achievement imagery in a
country related to nation’s
subsequent economic growth.
He suggested achievement
motivation training would
promote economic
advantage in less developed
countries
Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
Explain the choices that people make about their behavior.

Equity Expectancy Goal Setting

Theory Theory Theory
1963 1964 1984
Process Theories
Equity Theory (1963) John Stacey Adams

People believe that the input (or effort) that

they contribute will consequence output
(something in return) in their life. In addition,
people compare those ratios of other
people as well.

Resulting in perception of unfairness when

other people get return not within ratios
(imbalance) of their inputs.

The Kakigori Story

Process Theories
Equity Theory
 Recently, it has been clearer that preference for equity in
reward allocation is related to the extent of hierarchy or power
distance in society.

 For example, more egalitarian society prefers for equality over

equity.

 An extension of equity theory: the idea that some induviduals

are more equity-sensitive than others. (Huseman, Hatfield, & miles,
1987)

 Differences in individual’s equity sensitiveness are related to

cultural values. (Allen, Takeda, & White, 2005; Wheeler, 2002)
Process Theories
Expectancy Theory (1964) Victor H. Vroom

Motivational Force = Expectancy (Goals) x Instrumentality

(Challenges) x Valence (Feedback)

 Expectancy theory seems to lend itself very well to cross-cultural

comparisons.

 However, core assumption of expectancy theory make it

difficult to transport across culture.
Process Theories
Goal Setting Theory (1964) Edwin A Locke

- Specific difficult (but achievable) goals will lead to better

performance than easy goals, general goals, or no goals.

- Goal setting is most effective when feedback of the

progress is provided

 Support for goal setting relation had been consistently found

through various researches

 However, this theory may have harmful effects (Ordonez,

Schwetzer, Galinsky, and Bazerman, 2009)
Process Theories
Meaning of Work (1987) Edwin A Locke

- Huge research project in 7 industrialized countries seek

answers why people engage in work and what they value
in their work.

- Three purposes that are covered within the survey

questions:

 Needed Income

 Interesting and satisfying experience

 Contact with people

Process Theories
Meaning of Work (1987) Edwin A Locke

Work Centrality

Britain

US
Work Centrality
Germany

Japan

0 1 2
Process Theories
Designing Motivating Jobs
- Initial purpose was to improve efficiency, but then developed into
motivating employees

- Three approaches from different cultures:

 The Job Characteristics Model

(Skill Variety, Task Identify, Task Significance, Autonomy, Feedback)

 Socio Technical System

(Was developed and applied in societies that emphasize social goals, and always involve
autonomous work groups )

 Quality Control Circle

(Workers understand their own work better than anyone else and can improve by
themselves)
Leadership Across Cultures
 What ‘Leadership’ means to you?

 Do you have an experience having good leader

in your life?

After the earthquake and Tsunami Japan in 2011, Masataka

Shimizu, leader of Japanese Utility Tokyo Electric Power
Company (TEPCO) resigned due to failure in Fukushima
Daiichi power plant. He claimed to take responsibility for the
accident that causes fear and grief to the society.
(Tabuchi, 2011)
Leadership Across Cultures
Western Leadership Theories
1. Trait Theories
Based on thinking that ‘Leaders are born, not made’. However,
after tested scientifically, it failed to consistently identify traits that are important
for leadership. (Stogdill, 1948)

2. Behavioral Theories
Two dimensions:

- Initiating Structure (production or task oriented)

Conflicting result across cultures sometimes found

- Consideration (employee or relationship oriented)

Somewhat consistent across cultures
Leadership Across Cultures
Western Leadership Theories
3. Contingency Theories
Leader’s personality  Leader behavior style 
relationship between leader’s style and effectiveness.
(Fred Fiedler, 1967)

Conflicting result across cultures sometimes found

4. Implicit Theories
Employees/ followers had their own representation of
prototype of leaders based on their social experience
and interaction with others. (Lord, Voti, & De Vader, 1984)
Extension of this study: Charismatics and Transformational leadership
theory (Bass, 1985)
Leadership Across Cultures
Western Leadership Theories
5. Project GLOBE
17000 respondents

951 organizations

62 societies

What attributes caused individuals to

accept and respond to others as
leaders?

Defined GLOBE cultural dimension

Leadership Across Cultures
Non- Western Leadership
Theories
1. Performance – Maintenance (PM) Theory
Describe Japanese management practices that emphasize group
norms than individual direction. (Misumi, 1985)
Performance (P) Maintenance (M)

Pressure Type Behavior at maintaining individual well-being

Planning Type Behavior at maintaining individual social relationship

2. Arab- World Leadership

Strongly influeced by Islamic religion and tribal traditions as well as
Western culture (Ali, 1990) Resulted in authoritarian and patriarchal
approach- Sheikocracy

Duality and Prophetic-Caliphal leadership

Leadership Across Cultures
Non- Western Leadership
Theories
3. Paternalism
Involves relationship between leader and followers,
when the leader acts like a parent, when he / she
provide direction both in professional and private lives
of followers. (Aycan, 2006)
5 dimensions:

Family atmosphere ~ Close and individualized relationship ~

Involvement of non-work lives ~ Expecting loyalty ~ Expecting
deference

4. Bonus: Servant Leadership (Greenleaf, 1970)

Based on human motive to bond with others and contribute to
the betterment of society - to serve (Mittal & Dorfman, 2012)
Sources of materials
 David C Thomas and Mark F.Peterson, 2015. Cross-Cultural Management Essential Concepts. Sage Publication,
New York.

 http://timvandevall.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Maslows-Hierarchy-of-Needs.jpg

 http://www.azquotes.com/public/pictures/authors/75/d0/75d095af1e1dbd83aa1b8754610d6cb4/54790e6b2dd6
a_david_mcclelland.jpg

 https://apps.cla.umn.edu/directory/items/picture/59685.jpg

 https://www.kidsinthehouse.com/sites/default/files/locke.jpg

 http://www.le.ac.uk/oerresources/psychology/organising/page_06.htm

 https://www.justetf.com/uk/how-to/invest-in-japan.html

 http://cache.emirates247.com/polopoly_fs/1.389855.1452200083!/image/image.jpg

 http://www.progressfocusedapproach.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/discuss.jpg